LB 1576 
.B78 
Copy 1 



suggest;ons 



INSTRUCTION IN LANGUAGE 



Elementary Schools 



DR. EDWARD BROOKS 

Superintendent of Public Schools 



CITY OR PHILADELPHIA 



PHILADELPHIA 
BuRK & McFetridge Co., Printers, Publishers and Lithographers 
306 and 308 Chestnut Street 

1895 



u3 '5"i6 

37« 



Language Work in the Elementary 
Schools. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Education consists in developing the powers of man 
and furnishing his mind with knowledge. The act of 
developing the powers of man has been called Culture^ 
the act of furnishing his mind with knowledge is called 
Instruction. The object of Culture is to quicken, strengthen, 
and enrich the mind ; the object of Instruction is to fur- 
nish the mind with knowledge. Culture aims to give a 
person mental power and skill ; Instruction aims to give 
him information or learning. Each of these processes, of 
course, implies the other ; for in giving culture we make 
use of knowledge, and in imparting instruction there is 
usually some growth of the mental powers. The two 
processes are, however, not identical ; and the laws and 
methods of each are different. Culture and Instruction 
are largely the complements of each other; they are the 
two hemispheres of the science of education which, when 
united, give it symmetry and completeness. 

The first of these two elements received special 
attention among the early Greek teachers and educators. 
Plato, the father of the science of education, regarded the 
object of teaching as the harmonious development of the 
faculties of the individual; and nearly all thoughtful 
writers upon the subject of education have held the same 



view. The tendency of teachers, however, has been to 
neglect the culture element of the problem and emphasize 
the imparting of knowledge to the mind, making the 
standard of an educated person to be the possession of a 
capacious memory furnished with a multitude of facts. 
The idea of education among the people has tended in the 
same direction, the best educated person being regarded 
as one Avho knows the most. 

Both of these ends — culture and knowledge — should 
be kept prominently in view in the work of the teacher. 
The value of culture, so liable to be overlooked, should be 
especially emphasized in the work of instruction. The 
teacher should bear in mind that to cultivate and develop 
the powers of the pupil is of far greater value than to 
furnish his mind with knowledge. The imparting of 
knowledge is a much simpler matter than the develop- 
ment of intellectual activity and correct mental habits. 
Knowledge is a tangible product ; it is so many facts in 
the text-book or the memory, and can be readily measured 
by an ordinary examination. Culture is an invisible 
growth of mental activity and power that reveals itself to 
a different judgment and requires a difterent measure. Its 
test is not the amount of facts treasured in the memorj^, 
but the ability to use the faculties of the mind in the 
acquisition and application of knowledge. 

The result of culture is efficiency. A well-trained 
mind is one that can make proper use of its faculties and 
its knowledge. In a correct scheme of education, both 
power and knowledge should become objective ; they 
should go out into the achievement of something for the 
individual and for society. True education should not end 
in the mere passive possession of power and learning, but 
should qualify its possessor to be an active and effective 
force in the world. Giving formal expression to this ele- 
ment, which is really implied in culture, we may regard 
the ends of education as three-fold — culture, knowledge, 



aod efficiency. It is suggested, therefore, that the funda- 
mental educational maxim of every teacher should be — 
culture^ knowledge, and efficiency. 

These ends of education are secured by correct meth- 
ods of teaching. Teaching implies the use of materials 
with which to train the mind to correct methods of 
activity and to furnish it with useful information. This 
material is what is known as knowledge, and includes the 
different branches of science and art. These branches of 
knowledge have certain relations to one another which 
should be considered in the work of instruction. To 
neglect these relations results in a serious loss of time and 
mental development. One of the principal defects in 
elementary education is the disconnected and patch-work 
way in which instruction has been given. Knowledge 
often lies in the mind of the child a mass of disorganized 
and undigested facts, producing confusion and a loss of 
mental power. By properly co-ordinating the different 
branches in instruction, knowledge becomes a living 
organism in the mind of a child. Each fact exists in the 
mind in relation to its kindred fact, the outcome of which 
is that breadth of view and clearness of vision that mark 
the well-educated person. This principle has been recently 
emphasized under the head of the " correlation and unifi- 
cation of studies," one of the most important principles 
of primary education. 

The Correlation of Studies. 

In the application of the principle of the correlation 
and unification of studies, the question arises, what study 
shall be made central or fundamental to which the other 
branches may be related? To this question two opposite 
if not antagonistic answers have been given by educators. 
One class of educators hold that the objects of the material 
world, or the so-called Nature Studies, should be the basis 
of instruction, and that all other studies should be related 



to these branches. A prominent member of this school 
of educators places Geography as the basal study and cor- 
relates all the other branches around it as a centre. 

On the other hand, the school of educators known as 
the Herbartians, maintain that History should be made the 
fundamental branch of primary education, and that all other 
studies should be derived from and be related to History. 
In the application of this principle, they take the story of 
Robinson Crusoe, which is not history, but being a narra- 
tive IS typical of history, as the first study with the child 
in the primary school, and derive all other subjects from 
and co-ordinate them with Robinson Crusoe. 

Without entering into a discussion of the merits and 
demerits of these two systems, and very strong arguments 
can be given in favor of each, it is sufficient for me to^ay that 
I prefer not to make either of these the foundation of a sys- 
tem of primary education. My own thought is that neither 
Nature Study nor History should be made the central unit in 
the correlation of studies, but that it will be found more prac- 
ticable to make Language the fundamental branch in the pri 
mary school. One reason for this conclusion is that Lan- 
guage IS necessarily related to every other branch of study 
VN'hich 18 not the case with either geography or history. One' 
can teach Nature Studies without teaching History or His 
tory without teaching Nature Studies ; but we cannot teach 
either without the use of Language. Language is there- 
fore the one branch that is necessarily related to every 
other branch; and it is practical as well as philosophi- 
cal to select that which is necessarily fundamental and 
central as the basis of instruction. 

A second reason for making Language a fundamental 
branch in primary education is its intimate relation to the 
mmd. Language is the expression of thought, and in this 
expression we have the means, and the only means of 
knowing what is in the mind of the child. Language is 
thus the mirror of the mind, enabling the teacher to 



understand the working of the unseen spiritual forces of the 
human soul. The making of Language the basal or central 
study has the advantage therefore of turning the attention 
of the teacher to the mind of the child, a most important 
consideration in primary education. " Study the child " 
is a fundamental maxim of modern pedagogy; and the 
placing of Language as the central branch will lead to child 
study and a knowledge of the nature of the mind which 
is to be educated. 

Language as a central branch is especially adapted to 
give unity to all the branches of primary education. With 
Language as a basis we can use nature studies on the one 
hand and literature, including history, on the other hand, 
and unite them both in a beautiful and practical co-ordi- 
nation. Language implies material for expression, and 
both of these elements entering into the mind as the ma- 
terial for thought can be fused into a unity of knowledge 
and flow out in a stream of clear and definite expression. 

Presented in this way, the relation of knowledge to 
the mind will be more clearly seen. Every branch of 
knowledge came from the mind and finds its true place in 
a system of education through its relation to the mind. 
As Language is the mirror of the mind, whatever unifies 
in Language really unifies in the mental life of the child ; 
so that the real centre in the correlation of studies is the 
child itself. The child itself is thus to be made the centre 
of all unification and correlation, the different branches 
being used to give activity to the various faculties and pro- 
duce the three ends of education, culture, knowledge, and 
efficiency. It is thus seen with a renewed clearness of 
vision that the central unit in education is the Child. 

Language in Elementary Education. 

Assuming that Language should be regarded as the 
fundamental branch in the co-ordination and unification 
of studies, it is important that the teacher has a clear idea 



8 

of what is meant by and is implied in Language study. A 
few words will therefore be devoted to this subject. 

Language has been popularly defined as " the medium 
of expression." This definition though true is inadequate 
to express the full value of Language in a system of edu- 
cation. The expression of mental products has a reflex 
action upon these products and also upon the mind itself 
Ideas become clearer in the effort of expression. It is 
only as we put our thoughts into words that we are sure 
that they have been definitely and clearly conceived. Ideas 
which often lie in the mind in a kind of chaos are reduced 
to system by means of expression. The poetic genius 
often puts in definite phrase the ideas that were floating in 
a nebulous form in many brains, and the doing so shows 
his mental superiority and his right to immortality. The 
final test of clearness of thought must be clearness of 
expression. 

But Language is not only a medium of expression ; it 
is an aid to thinking. We think by means of Language 
as well as give expression to our thoughts. Indeed, there 
can be but little thinking without words. Plato says 
"reason and discourse are one;" and Max Miiller ex- 
presses the same view when he remarks that " Language 
and thought are inseparable. Words without thoughts 
are dead sounds; thoughts without words are nothing. 
To think is to speak low; to speak is to think aloud. 
The word is the thought incarnate." Language there- 
fore is an instrument of thought as well as a medium of 
expression. 

Again, Language is not merely the instrument of 
thought and the medium of expression, but it is the 
medium for the acquisition and communication of knowl- 
edge. While the senses constitute one source of knowl- 
edge, a knowledge of material things, the largest and 
richest source of knowledge is that of Language. The 
knowledge of the race, all that man has seen or thought or 



done, is preserved and presented in Language. To be 
able to read therefore is to hold the keys of the temple 
of all knowledge. This fact, the value of Language as 
a source of knowledge, so often overlooked by modern 
writers on education, should never be forgotten by the 
teacher. 

The value of Language as a branch of elementary 
education will be thus more clearly seen and more fully 
appreciated. Language is a valuable aid to mental develop- 
ment in four ways : first, as a means of imparting knowl- 
edge to the mind of the child ; second, as a stimulus to 
mental activity and the development of mental products ; 
third, as a necessary instrument of judgment and reason- 
ing ; and fourth, as the treasury of the knowledge of 
mankind, from which by the ability to read the mind 
may be furnished with the ideas, the thoughts, and the 
actions of the race. 

Another advantage of making Language a funda- 
mental branch in primary education is the ititimate rela- 
tion of expression to mental action. Language has been 
oalled the " mirror of the mind ; " in it we can see the 
working of that invisible and intangible thing which we 
call the Mind. Every thought of the intellect, every feel- 
ing of the sensibilities, every act of the will, is embodied 
in Language. The mental and spiritual life of the race is 
preserved and revealed in human speech. There is no 
better text-book on mental science than is presented in 
Language if it is properly studied, for it contains every 
possible form of mental activity. One of the most 
important maxims of modern education is " Study the 
Child ; " and the best way to study the child is to study 
its Language which reveals the working of its inner 
spiritual life. 

Language it is thus seen is the one branch that natur- 
ally belongs at the head of all the branches of elementary 
instruction. It is facile princeps among the common 



10 

schoo] branches. Its intimate relation to the human mind 
and the development of its faculties explains why such 
splendid results in mental development were obtained in 
the much criticised scholastic system of education with all 
its errors and short-comings. A more general apprecia- 
tion of its value is a need in modern education, and more 
attention to it will result in increased intelligence of the 
pupils of the public schools. 

Outline of Language Work. 

The Language work of the elementary schools em- 
braces several things that are often disassociated in instruc- 
tion and yet whose relation should be clearly seen and 
carefully observed by the teachers. A brief analysis showing 
these different branches and their relation to one another 
will be presented : — 

First, Language is both oral and written ; hence, oral 
and written exercises are to be united in the course of 
instruction. The lessons in Language should begin with 
oral language, a conversation about objects, facts, incidents,, 
etc. This oral language is to be changed into written 
language, thus making visible to the eye what was before 
intelligible through the ear. This written language the 
pupils are to learn to understand, to express in oral words,, 
and to use in expressing their own ideas. The use of 
written language, it is seen, will include instruction in 
Penmanship, Spelling, use of Capitals and Punctuation 
marks ; all of which can and should be united in instruc- 
tion. Further, this written language which, properly 
taught, came from the oral language of the pupil, is to be 
given oral expression again ; and this introduces what is 
known as Reading, the oral expression of the thought 
presented on the printed page. From the very beginnings 
therefore, instruction in Language includes conversation, 
penmanship, orthography, capitalization, punctuation and 
reading, as presented in the following outline : — 



11 

-, m ^ T r 1. Conversation. 

1. Oral Language. | 3. Reading. _ 

Instruction in . fl. Penmanship. 

Language. l n \\t -4.4. t 2. Orthography. 

° ° 2. Written Language. < o /-> •^^- ..• 

[ *= ^ I 3. Capitahzation. 

J (^4. Punctuation. 

Knowledge the Basis of Language Work. 

In giving instruction in Language it should be borne 
in mind that the basis of Language is knowledge. Language 
is to be regarded as the expression of what a child really 
knows or thinks. The words that come from the lips 
should be a reflection of the thought which is in the 
mind. Words should not be mere hollow forms, like the 
soap-bubbles of children containing only air, but they 
should be filled with the contents of significance. The 
teacher is to be careful that she is not dealing with " mere 
words," but that the child is putting its own thoughts and 
feelings into its expression. " First the idea and then the 
word," should be the teacher's golden motto. 

1. Material Things. — As knowledge should thus be the 
basis of lessons in Language, it is important to know what 
kind of knowledge is suited for this work. A child's first 
knowledge, it will be remembered, is of material things, 
the objects of the material world. These objects are of 
three difierent classes, — inorganic objects, vegetables, and 
animals. Each of these three classes of objects is to be used 
in Language Lessons. These objects have names, hence a 
child's first words are usually the names of objects. These 
objects have also parts and qualities, hence the names of 
the parts and qualities of objects are to be used in primary 
instruction in Language. Some of these objects can do 
something (as the cat runs, the bird sings) ; hence the 
actions of objects are also to be used in language work. 
By means of these parts and qualities and actions, objects 
may be described, and thus description enters very largely 
into language work. 



12 

In addition to the objects of the material world, there 
are interesting phenomena, as of light, sound, the weather, 
etc., which attract the attention of the child. The 
arching sky, the fleecy clouds, the twinkling stars, the 
changes of the moon, the properties of water, the falling 
of bodies, etc., are all to be used to cultivate the percep- 
tive powers and develop the power of expression. An 
inquiry into the causes of these phenomena will carry 
the mind beyond the stage of perception by calling into 
activity the power of reflection in one of its important 
forms. Thus the elements of all the physical sciences, 
— mineralogy, botany, zoology including physiology, 
natural philosophy, meteorology, astronomy, etc., — may 
all be used to furnish the knowledge which is to be 
used to give content to the words used in Language 
Lessons. 

All these topics may be embraced under the general 
term of Nature Study, a most important element in the 
work of the primary school. One of the reforms of 
modern education is the emphasis given to these branches 
of knowledge. To omit the use of natural objects and 
the phenomena of the material world is to lose an im- 
portant factor in primary education. Kot only is the 
knowledge which is thus imparted of value in itself, but 
it is an indispensable source of discipline to the young 
mind. It gives a reality and a certainty to mental prod- 
ucts that were often wanting in the older systems of in- 
struction. It calls into activity the powers of perception 
so liable to be neglected in school life, and aflbrds an 
opportunity for the exercise of the process of generaliza- 
tion and judgment. The observation of the phenomena 
of nature calls forth the power of reflection and cultivates 
that philosophical spirit that delights in the search for the 
causes and laws of the material world. As flowing forth 
into Language, the form of expression in nature study is 
mainly that which is called description. 



13 

2. Mental Products.— But there is another source of 
knowledge besides that of the material world. Man him- 
self is the creator of a world of knowledge as vast and as 
important as is the world of material things. To this 
world belong the thoughts, the feelings, and the actions of 
mankind. Every work of science and philosophy, every 
form of literature, poetry and art, all the records of his- 
tory, ancient and modern, in fine, everything that man has 
thought or imagined or felt or done, which has been 
recorded on the printed page, belongs to this other world 
of knowledge. Invisible and intangible, the world of 
thought is as real as the world of material things, and it 
should not be overlooked in the work of education. 

These productions of the human mind may be broadly 
included under the two heads of Literature and History. 
These subjects are as real as the objects of the material 
world, and are quite as important in the work of educa- 
tion. A thought is as real as a thing, and continues ta 
exist when the material thing has become extinct. A 
work of literature is as enduring as the mountains, and 
has far greater influence in touching the heart and 
shaping the intellectual growth of a child. The deeds of 
history are as much an actuality as a tree or a mineral ; and 
through the examples of noble lives and heroic actions, are 
specially adapted to shape the character of mankind and 
mold the civilization of an age. 

These products of Literature and History should be 
early employed in the education of children. Children 
have a natural interest in persons and their actions and 
feelings as well as in stones, plants, and animals. They 
have fdeas and feelings of their own to which they desire 
to give expression. They delight in fairy stories, in fable& 
and fictions, and in the relation of personal incidents. 
" Tell me a story " is one of the earliest requests of home- 
life. Children, it is thus seen, are early interested in 
what may be called the " humanities " of education. It is 



14 



thus evident that the actions of persons, their thoughts 
and feelings, incidents in child life, the social and moral 
actions of children, their plajs and pastimes, etc., should 
afford material for language work in the primary grades. 
Hence stories of children and adults, biographies, fables, 
fairy stories, poetry, etc., are to be largely used in the 
language work of the primary school. 

These subjects of the world of mind are usually pre- 
sented in the form of narratives; thus narrative will enter 
into the course of instruction in the use of Literature and 
History as description does in Nature Study. Comparing 
those two forms of expression, it will be found that chil- 
dren are usually more interested in narration than in de- 
scription. To tell what a little bird did will awaken a 
much deeper interest with a child than to describe its 
form, color, or parts. These subjects also, dealing usually 
with the thoughts and actions of mankind, awaken and 
stimulate the power of thought in the minds of pupils, and 
thus cultivate the faculty of reflection. And so while 
i^ature Study brings into play the processes of observation 
and description, the thoughts and actions of Literature and 
History call into exercise the powers of reflection and nar- 
ration. 

The emphasis placed upon is^ature Study of late years 
calls for a few words in favor of this second form of 
Knowledge. The culture derived from the use of Litera- 
ture and History is quite as important as that derived from 
the study of material things. They touch a deeper part of 
a child's nature, and give a finer and broader culture than 
the use of objects and material phenomena. They appeal 
to the sensibilities, to the emotions and desires of the 
child wherein arise the motives that give shape to the pur- 
poses and actions of children. They touch the will from 
which flows the actions that constitute the conduct of 
mankind. Material things give food to the intellectual 
side of the mind; literature and history touch the entire 



15 

nature — intellect, sensibility, and will — and tend to a har- 
monious development of the entire spiritual nature. Char- 
acter, which is the highest product of education, is based 
upon the ethical element, which is entirely wanting in the 
material sciences. We cannot develop character by the 
study of minerals and plants ; for this highest and best 
work of the teacher, we need literature and history where 
motives have their play and the will goes forth into the 
execution of purpose. 

This relation of the two forms of knowledge should 
be clearly understood by the educator and teacher. While 
the study of objects is essential in primary education, to 
limit our instruction to the use of objects would material- 
ize the work of the primary school. We need idealism as 
well as realism in education ; there is a place for the 
humanities even in the work of the primary school. 
Nature Study should be thus supplemented by the study of 
human nature ; the material is to be combined with the 
spiritual ; the facts of the physical world are to be accom- 
panied with the facts and products that belong to the 
world of thought and feeling. This principle, which has 
sometimes been lost sight of by those who would be 
guides in educational thought and practice, should never 
be forgotten by the teacher of children. 

An additional element of value in literary and his- 
torical subjects is found in the fact that a child can 
originate something for itself. In the study of plants and 
animals a child can only observe and describe what is before 
it. The value of Nature Study is in its accuracy of observa- 
tion and description. In the sphere of mental products it 
can begin to create new things for itself It can express its 
own feelings, its own thoughts and opinions of things, and 
narrate its own actions. It can relate incidents of family 
life, narrate the actions of its playmates or schoolmates, 
originate imaginary incidents, etc., all of which give cul- 
ture to the creative powers of a child's mind. 



16 

As the interest of the child is the foundation of suc- 
cessful teaching, it will be well for the teacher to notice 
which of these subjects are most interesting to pupils. 
She may make a comparison between objects, their parts, 
their qualities, their actions, the phenomena of nature, 
etc., to see which of these things of the material world 
interest children most. She may make a similar compari- 
son of the various elements found in the world of thought 
and feeling, as incidentsof home-life, personal experiences, 
fables, fairy stories, biographies, stories illustrating some 
sentiment or virtue, or which teach some moral lesson. A 
further comparison, and a very important one, may be 
made to see which is more interesting to a child, the 
objects of the material world or the elements of the world 
of ideas and sentiments as expressed in literature and 
histor3\ A comparison, also, in respect to the relative 
interest of narration and description may be made. Such 
comparisons will not only be of interest to a teacher, but 
will enable her to reach conclusions which will be a guide 
to her in her work. 

It is also suggested that while Nature Study should at 
first be a real study of objects, qualities, and phenomena, 
yet it will be well at times to make these objects the basis 
of literary and historic treatment. Thus imaginary inci- 
dents may be related of a flower, or a bird, or a cloud ; 
and poetic gems, based upon and descriptive of some 
object of nature, may be committed and recited. The 
world of nature becomes thus idealized and lifted up into 
the world of literature and invested with a charm that 
adds an interest to Nature herself that she would not 
otherwise possess. Some of the finest passages of litera- 
ture and some of the rarest gems of poetical compositions 
are illustrative of the literary treatment of natural objects. 

3. Form and Number. — Beside the two worlds of 
Matter and Mind, we have the two great conditions of 
existence, Space and Time. Space is a necessary condition 



17 

for the existence of Matter ; Time is a necessary condition 
for the existence of Mind. Were there no Space, matter 
could not exist; were there no Time, mind and thought 
could have no being. These two great conditions of exist- 
ence belong neither to the world of matter nor to the 
world of mind, which we have been describing. They 
each give rise to material for mental activity of vast im- 
portance in education. From Space comes the idea of 
Form, which is the basis of the science of Geometry. 
Out of Time through succession and repetition, we derive 
the idea of Number which is the basis of the science of 
Arithmetic. Both of these ideas are to be used in primary 
instruction for mental development and for expression. 

The idea of Form is one of the earliest of the human 
mind. Objects present themselves to us in material forms, 
and the mind naturally passes from concrete form to the 
conception of abstract form. The mental product result- 
ing from perception is a picture of the object, especially a 
picture of its shape ; and from the perception of the forms 
of real things around it, the child naturally passes to the 
conception of ideal or type forms. These geometrical 
figures afford an opportunity for bringing into play the 
faculty of comparison as the foundation of judgment and 
reasoning. Lessons on Form are therefore especially 
valuable in giving culture to the powers of perception, 
conception, and comparison. 

The idea of Number is also early developed and is to 
be used in primary instruction both for discipline and 
knowledge. As a disciplinary study it cultivates attention, 
a spirit of exactness, and logical habits of thought. 
Lessons in Number may also be used in connection with 
the Language work, although its range in this respect is 
much more restricted than the objects of nature or the 
subjects of literature. The use of Number in training the 
child to conciseness and accuracy of expression is, how- 
ever, to be highly appreciated. The simple and logical 



18 

forms of expression used in arithmetical analysis train the 
mind to a sense of conciseness and accuracy of expression 
that manifests itself in dealing with nature-study and 
literary subjects. As the work in arithmetic is very defi- 
nitely outlined in a separate pamphlet no detailed sugges- 
tions are needed here. Let the motto be clearness of 
conception, familiarity with the elementary combinations, 
facility in computation, and accuracy in results. 

4. Doing Subjects. — Besides the subjects previously 
referred to as a basis of knowledge, there are certain 
actions of a child expressing inner states of thought or 
knowledge which are to be considered in primary instruc- 
tion. The social relations call for certain courtesies that 
indicate a spirit of good-will and kindness and also a class 
of actions based on the ideas of right. Thus arises a need 
for instruction in manners and morals in the public schools. 
Then there are aesthetic ideas that express themselves in 
singing, drawing, etc., that should receive the attention of 
the teacher in a course of study. Special attention should 
also be given to those physical activities that are conducive 
to health, growth, grace and vigor of body, known as 
gymnastics or physical culture. All these things which 
pertain to the actions of children are so closely related that 
they may be embraced under the general head of Doing 
Subjects, or the School Arts. Under this heading are 
embraced Manners and Morals, the Arts of Drawing, 
Singing, etc., and Physical Exercises or Gymnastics. 

The work of Drawing, which is a special mode of 
expression, a particular form of language, is to accompany 
the instruction in all the different branches of knowledge. 
Drawing in its imitative or representative form is restricted 
to the objects of the material world ; in its creative 
form it may also represent the ideas and sentiments of 
Literature. N'o suggestions need be made in respect 
to it here, as the course is fully outlined in a separate 
pamphlet. 



19 

Morals and Planners, — Under the graded course in 
Language will be found a few suggestions for the training 
of pupils in Morals and Manners. These subjects do not 
belong to Language, but are regarded as so important that 
we desire to emphasize them by giving them a place in 
the outline of primary instruction. Both of these subjects 
should receive the special attention of teachers. The 
behavior of children bears a close relation to moral con- 
duct, and politeness in speech and manner is a virtue of 
great value. Moral training is of fundamental importance, 
for society needs honor and virtue even more than it 
needs intelligence. Teachers should never forget that the 
highest product of education is moral worth, and that the 
highest ideal of the teacher is not merely instruction but 
character building. 

It is suggested also in this connection that teachers 
take special pains to cultivate the taste, the sense of neat- 
ness and beauty, of their pupils. The school-room should 
be kept neat and clean; all the work on the board, of 
both pupils and teachers, should be carefully and neatly 
written ; the lines in arithmetical work should be mainly 
parallel to the edge of the board ; blackboards should 
be thoroughly cleaned when no work is on them; and 
all the furniture of the room should be in proper con- 
dition and be properly placed. It is also suggested 
that teachers obtain suitable pictures with which to adorn 
the walls of the school-room. In addition to this the 
teacher may have some growing plants, an aquarium for 
gold fish, an occasional bouquet of flowers on her desk, 
etc., all of which will not only give an air of beauty 
to the school-room, but by an unconscious influence will 
also mold the aesthetic taste of the child. Taught thus 
in the school the children will carry this taste out into 
their home-life, and do something to give added neat- 
ness and beauty to their homes, however humble they 
may be. 



20 

Manners and Morals should be taught incidentally in 
Literature and History, and they are usually taught more 
effectually in this way than by formal lessons on these 
subjects. More definite outlines in Manners and Morals, 
Music and Gymnastics, are in preparation and will be 
issued at a suitable time. 



21 



LANGUAGE WORK IN PRIMARY GRADES. 

The relation of the several parts of the work thus 
enumerated is shown by the following outline, with which 
it will be well for the teacher of the elementary schools to 
be familiar : — 

I. Language (the expression of knowledge). 

-i r\ ^^ 1 Conversation. 

1. Oral Language. >_ 

'' =' / Reading. 

1 Writing. 
Capitalization. 
Punctuation. 

II. Sources of Knowledge (materials for thought and 

expression). 

1. Natural Objects. (Nature Study.) 

2. Mental Products. (Literature and History.) 

3. Number and Form. (Arithmetic and Geometry.) 

III. Doing Subjects (or the School Arts). 

1. Manners and Morals. 

2. Singing, Drawing, etc. 

3. Gymnastics. 

Outline of Material for Language Wore. 

The two principal sources of material for Language 
work, as already explained, are those found in the objects 
of nature and in the thoughts and actions of mankind. 
The former, as stated, has been called Nature Study, and 
the latter may be included under the heads of Literature 
and History. A brief outline of suitable material for 
Language work will be presented under these two heads : — 



22 

I. Nature Study. (Natural History and Physics.) . 

1. Toys. 

2. Common objects. 

3. Plant life, including the seed, leaf, flower, etc. 

4. Animal life, including lessons on the human body. 

5. Minerals; as iron, copper, quartz, gold, silver, etc. 

6. Natural Phenomena, — the sky, sun, moon, stars, 
clouds, weather, etc. 

II. Human Productions. (Literature and History.) 

1. Fables, fairy tales, legends, etc. 

2. Stories of child-life (at home and abroad). 

3. Stories of adults (noble deeds of men and women). 

4. Nature stories (of animals, plants, etc.). 

5. Stories from history. 

6. Poems (read, committed, and recited). 

7. Prose selections (committed and recited). 

8. Memory gems of prose and poetry. 

9. Recitations and declamations. 

Pictures. — This work is to be given in the concrete so 
far as possible, with suitable objects in the school-room. 
Where the objects cannot be obtained, pictures of the ob- 
jects afford an excellent substitute for them. Pict- 
ures may also be used in the literary and historical exer- 
cises with interest and value. The following outline will 
indicate the use of pictures in Language work (for oral 
and written exercises) : — 

1. Of animals and plants, to illustrate Nature Study. 

2. For description (training observation). 

3. For narration (training imagination). 

4. Pictures for geograpical illustration. 

5. Historical portraits and pictures. 

All this material is to be properly graded by the 
Principal and his teachers for the different classes of each 



23 

school. Each teacher should know exactly what material 
she is to use in each one of these difterent divisions of the 
subject. She should know what work she is to do with 
plants, animals, toys, etc. ; what fables she is to use, what 
stories to relate, what poems to have committed, what 
selections to use for recitation and declamation, etc. 
Each teacher should also know what material the previous 
teacher or teachers have used that this work can be occa- 
sionally reviewed, and the work she is giving be properly 
connected with the previous work both in I^ature Study 
and in Literature. Care should be taken also that the 
work in all the different branches be properly related in 
the different grades, so as to apply as far as possible the 
principle of the unification of studies. 

Suggestions for Using the Material. 

In imparting the instruction outlined, the teacher 
should always remember that her work should be given 
in the concrete. There must be real plants, minerals, and, 
so far as possible, animals in the school-room. When the 
object cannot be secured, the next best thing is the picture 
of the object. No dependence must be placed on mere 
description by the teacher or text-book, for this to the 
child is often a mere combination of words without ideas. 
Pupils should be encouraged to obtain the objects for 
themselves, as they will thus have additional interest in 
the study of them. So in respect to the physical phe- 
nomena—children should be led to observe the weather, 
to notice the changes in temperature, the changes of the 
moon, the motions of the stars, etc. In this way a foun- 
dation for real knowledge is laid as well as a taste for 
scientific investigation that may be of great value to the 
pupils in future years. 

In the use of biography, fables, stories, etc., the 
teacher must be careful that the material be adapted to the 
child's comprehension. Everything must be based, so far 



24 

as possible, on the child's own experience. The imagin- 
ary productions must be suitable to the child's own natural 
imaginings. The sentiments must be such as are adapted to 
child-life and the natural impulses of its nature. Let the 
teacher remember that the work here is far more delicate 
than in the use of material things which can be seen and 
handled, and that it requires far more judgment and skill 
to do the work properly. 

The work of the primary grades must necessarily be 
largely objective, appealing to the power of perception. 
The eyes, the ears, all the senses of children are active. 
They are the principal sources of knowledge and give im- 
pulse and direction to mental activity. But there is a 
place for reflection also in the work of the primary grades. 
The dawnings of thought begin to appear at an early age. 
The child begins to originate ideas and opinions; and 
it would be a mistake not to recognize the power of 
thought and bring it into activity. Teachers should lead 
the little ones, therefore, to think and express their 
thoughts as well as to see and describe objects. The ob- 
servant teacher will be surprised at the originative power 
of children, showing that the mind is no mere tabula rasa 
of intelligence. 

As the work passes up toward the higher grades, the 
method of instruction must be gradually modified. While 
in the lower grades perception must be the main source of 
knowledge, subsequently a child must begin to acquire 
knowledge that it cannot gain through the perceptive 
faculties. Language becomes a source or medium of 
knowledge to the mind. The facts of geography, most 
of them, are too remote for personal observation, and they 
must be presented to the mind by means of verbal descrip- 
tion. The events of history having already occurred 
cannot be seen by the pupil, but must be realized as they 
are described in language. These should first be presented 
by the teacher in oral language by description, aided, so 



25 

far as possible, by the illustrations of pictures. The pupil 
must also be shown how to obtain these facts from the text- 
book. Care must be taken that the language of the book 
be fully understood by the pupil, and that it conveys to 
and develops real knowledge in the mind of the child. 
Care must also be taken that in stating in the recitation 
what has been studied, the language used shall convey 
clear and definite ideas existing in the pupil's mind, rather 
than be the mere repetition of words. 

As we pass upward into the higher grades, more 
attention to reflection is required. Perceptive processes 
are to be gradually transformed into reflective processes. 
Sense knowledge is to be converted into and supplemented 
l>y thought knowledge. The so-called " thought studies '^ 
become more prominent, and need modified methods of 
instruction. Pupils are to be taught to think, as well as 
to perceive and remember; their powers of judgment and 
reasoning are to be brought into activity. Care is to be 
taken that the pupils see the reasons for processes, draw 
correct inferences from premises, and be able to give 
logical explanations of their work. The highest work of 
the teacher in the domain of the intellect is to arouse the 
reflective faculties of the child and develop the power of 
independent and original thought. 

It should be remembered that the principle of the 
unification of studies, so valuable and necessary in primary 
instruction, must be modified as we reach the higher 
branches of instruction. For instance, it would not be 
practicable to unite in the same recitation lessons in Latin, 
geometry, algebra and English history. Indeed, a slight 
variation from the principle of the unification should be 
made in the w^ork of the primary grades. Even during 
the first year a little independent drill in the elements of 
numbers and in the elements of drawing and music will 
be of advantage. The principle of unification, therefore, 
though the basis of instruction in the primary grades. 



26 

should be gradually modified as we pass to the more 
advanced subjects of instruction. The time comes when 
separate periods are to be set apart for arithmetic, gram- 
mar, drawing, geography, etc., instead of attempting to 
combine them all in the same recitation. Careful judg- 
ment on the part of teachers is required to see just where 
these changes should be made, and to secure a gradual 
and intelligent differentiation of subjects of study. There 
are some subjects which should never be entirely separated^ 
as geography and history, science and drawing, etc., and 
the elements of orthography, punctuation, grammar, etc., 
in instruction in Language. And even in higher courses 
of study, though distinct branches must be studied 
separately, it is well to call the student's attention to the 
relation that exists between the several branches. The 
highest thought of man is that of philosophy which seeks 
the unity in diversity, and endeavors to relate all the 
branches of knowledge by the thread of some fundamental 
principle. 

Finally, let teachers always bear in mind that the 
object of their work is, first, mental development, and 
second, knowledge, and that this mental development ia 
secured by the proper use of knowledge. Herein lies the 
teacher's skill — to so use this knowledge as to bring forth 
the best results of mental training. To do this is a high 
art ; and the teacher who can do it with skill and succesa 
is an artist. 

Suggestions for Work in Language. 

This material, as has been previously explained, is to 
be used as the content of expression. Its purpose is tO' 
stimulate the mind to activity, develop its faculties and 
furnish it with knowledge. This knowledge is to flow out 
into Language, and the instruction is to be given in such a 
way as to cultivate the power of expression. As Language 
is both oral and written, both forms are to be used in this 



27 

work ; and a few suggestions are herewith presented to 
indicate correct methods of instruction. 

/. Oral Language : — All work in the culture of lin- 
guistic expression should be based on oral language. The 
child begins its lessons in Language at home in learning 
to talk. Through its natural impulse it chatters the live- 
long day. To repress this impulse for oral expression 
when it enters the school is to array oneself against a 
natural law of mental growth and development. 

1. The teacher should remember, therefore, that dur- 
ing the first three or four years the oral work in Language 
is of paramount importance. The pupil is to be trained 
to use its mother tongue with facility and correctness. Its 
vocabulary is to be enlarged and it is to acquire the habit 
of ready and accurate expression. The number of oral 
exercises should, therefore, exceed the number of written 
exercises. 

Teachers will find it of great interest to endeavor 
to ascertain the extent of the vocabularies of their pupils. 
It was formerly supposed that children of three or four years 
of age had a vocabulary of from 200 to 300 words ; but recent 
investigations have shown that the actual vocabulary is much 
larger, amounting in many cases to 1,200 or 1,500 words* 
Of course, the number of words a child is familiar with 
will vary with its associations, children of intelligent 
parents usually having the use of a much larger number 
of words than those in ignorant or uncultivated families. 
The observation of the Language of children will reveal 
a number of interesting facts concerning their mental life 
and development. It will be found that words expressing 
actions are much more numerous in the child's vocabulary 
than words expressing quality or even name-words, 
pointing to the fact that children are more interested in 
actions than in objects. 

2. Teachers should be careful to train the children to 
speak in complete sentences. In the description of objects, 



28 

or the relation of incidents, several sentences may be com- 
bined into paragraphs. The attention of pupils may be 
called to the nature of a complete oral sentence, so that 
they may understand the sentence when they come to 
written Language. A knowledge of the oral sentence is 
to be made the basis of instruction in the written sentence. 

3. Lead the children to see and think for themselves, 
and then express what is in their minds. Let real thought 
in the mind be the basis of expression. Endeavor to pre- 
vent mere parrot-like repetition of words without any con- 
tent of thought in them. Let their words be living words 
like the language of home, rather than the " dead lan- 
guage " so often heard in the recitations of the school. 

4. Be careful to correct the faulty expressions to which 
children are liable. Call their attention to the common 
errors of speech and have them try to avoid them. The 
language of the home and the street is often antagonistic 
to correct expression, and it requires the constant and 
unremitting attention of the teacher to counteract its influ- 
ence. Remember that language is a habit, and that chil- 
dren must be drilled until correct habits of expression are 
formed. 

5. See, also, that the pupils' articulation and pronun- 
ciation are correct, and that they have no faulty habits of 
intonation. Be careful, also, that the manner of expres- 
sion is simple and natural. Do not permit that mechanical 
and artificial method of expression so often heard in the 
recitation of the school-room. Banish the so-called "school- 
room tone " from your schools. Try to have pupils speak 
and read in that simple, natural, and unafltected way which 
is the charm of cultivated conversation. Above all, let 
the teacher endeavor to set the example by being a good 
talker herself. To talk well is a tine art, and is as worthy 
of culture as the art of sinocino; or drawins;. 

6. In every exercise have a definite point in view. 
Aimless talk on the part of teacher or pupil is of little 



29 

value. All the exercises in Language should be progres- 
sive, so that each day may not be an aimless repetition of 
the previous day's work. There should be a progressive 
movement in culture, knowledge, and expression, and to 
secure this requires the teacher to have her work thor- 
oughly systematized. 

7. Description and narratives may often be given by 
the teacher for the children to reproduce. These may 
consist at first of only a sentence or two, but with a little 
practice on the part of the pupil may be extended to a 
considerable length. In the reproduction, be sure that the 
pupils are talking from the facts clearly conceived in the 
mind, and are not merely repeating the words. Descrip- 
tions and narratives may also be read by the teacher and 
then be reproduced by the pupils. 

8. Pupils may also be required to originate descrip- 
tions and narratives. This will be an exercise in " oral 
composition," which is just as valuable as written com- 
position. In fact, oral composition should precede written 
ones. Pupils should be trained to " talk compositions " 
before they attempt to " write compositions." All written 
exercises in Language should, at first, be based on corres- 
ponding oral exercises. 

9. For the purpose of cultivating a taste for Language 
and skill in expression, pupils should be encouraged to 
read good literature. Let the teacher make a wise use of 
the supplementary readers in her school, not merely for 
the information they contain but for their influence on the 
literary culture of her pupils. Make use also, so far as 
possible, of the Libraries which the Board of Public Edu- 
cation is establishing in different parts of the city. If 
possible, have a library of well-selected books in the school, 
and have the pupils read them. You will thus not only 
do much to develop the ability to use good language, 
but also cultivate a taste for good reading which will be 
of intestimable value to them in after-life. 



30 

10. Pupils should also be required to commit tine 
selections of prose and poetry. These will cling to their 
memory, furnishing the mind with facts and sentiments, 
and also giving a vocabulary of words and molding the 
form of expression. Let the minds of the children be 
filled with " memory gems " of prose «nd poetry. Have 
the girls commit suitable pieces for recitation and the boys 
learn passages from the great orators, and have frequent 
exercises in recitation and declamation. Such exercises 
will be found most valuable in cultivating literary taste 
and ability in literary expression. 

11. There are a number of common errors to which 
the pupils of the public schools are liable which need the 
careful attention of the teacher. Special care should be 
taken to train the pupils to the correct use of I, me ; is, 
are ; was, were ; has, have ; see, saw, seen ; do, did, done ; 
go, went, gone; this, that; these, those; come, came; 
wrote, written ; knew, known ; took, taken ; lie, lay ; sit, 
set; may, can; shall, will; nothing, anything, etc. 

Care should be taken to prevent the incorrect use of 
the word " got," and also to correct such expressions, " it 
is me," " it is him," " let Mary and I go," etc. Care 
should be taken also to teach pupils the correct contrac- 
tions of " has not," " is not," " should not," " have not," 
" do not," " does not," " I will," etc. The teacher should 
make a note of the ungrammatical expressions heard in 
the school-room or in the school-yard and endeavor to 
lead her pupils to avoid these expressions. Try also to 
lead pupils to avoid those common expressions known as 
*' slang" which, though extensively used, are indicative of 
a lack of culture and refinement. 

It hardly need be added that all corrections should be 
made in a spirit of sympathy and encouragement. Pupils 
are especially sensitive about their errors of oral language, 
and need to be corrected with tact and sympathy so as not 
to destroy the spontaneity of their thought and expression. 



31 

There should be the same freedom of mental activity in 
the school-room that there is on the playground or in the 
home circle, and the teacher who secures it possesses an 
important element of success. 

II. Written Language. — Exercises in oral language are 
to be accompanied by exercises in written language. The 
two are to go hand in hand in primary education. All 
exercises in written language should be based upon oral 
language. The written word is to be regarded as the ex- 
pression of the oral word, rather than of the object or 
thing for which the oral word stands. The following 
suggestions will be found of advantage to teachers : — 

1. The child has some knowledge of oral language 
when it enters school, so that written words can be intro- 
duced immediately. The child knows how to talk ; the 
first object is to teach it how to read. The first lessons in 
written language may be presented in the form of an entire 
sentence from which the transition may be made to the 
individual words. These sentences may be written upon 
the board in script, and charts and primers may also be 
used. The child should understand that the written 
characters express to the eye what oral language expresses 
to the ear. 

2. The attention of the child should be early called to 
the use of capitals and the period and interrogation marks. 
When sentences become more complex and the comma is 
required, a simple explanation of its use can be given. 
The pupil is to be taught the use of these marks by using 
them and not by scientific explanation of their use. 

3. After a few lessons on written words, pupils may 
be required to copy the written work which the teacher 
has placed upon the board. This will be an exercise in 
penmanship, capitalization, and punctuation. Much care 
is to be exercised that the pen or pencil is properly held, 
that the pupil has a correct position at the desk, and that 
the letters are properly formed. Cultivate good habits 



32 

from the first, and there will be no bad habits to unlearn 
when the pupil is older. 

4. As soon as the pupils can write a number of words, 
they can begin to use written language to express their 
ideas and thoughts. At first they may copy the sentences 
which have been derived from the oral exercises and 
written on the board as already suggested. Following this, 
pupils may be required to write simple sentences about an 
object or picture which has been ptresented to them, and 
talked about in the class. The oral sentences which they 
have used or heard in the exercise may be transformed 
into written expression on their slates or paper. 

5. Following this, they may be required to look at an 
object or picture, tell in oral language what they see, and 
then express the same in written language. This is an 
advance on the previous exercise in their expressing their 
own thoughts in their own language unaided by the 
teacher. They are thus " writing their talk," which is a 
fundamental principle of written expression. 

6. This exercise can be follow^ed or accompanied by 
an exercise of expressing directly in written language 
what they see of an object or in a picture without first 
expressing it in oral language. It will be interesting for 
the teacher to note which of these exercises gives the 
better expression ; and also whether the written language 
comes directly from the thought or passes through a silent 
oral language. 

7. The teacher may also describe an object orally or 
read a description of it, and have the pupils reduce the 
same to writing, following the order so nearly as possible 
and using such language as may be remembered. The 
teacher may also read or relate a narrative imaginary or 
historical, and require the pupil to reproduce it in writing. 

8. Pupils may also be required to read a description or 
a narrative from a book and then reproduce it in writing. 
This will test their power of thought-getting from the 



33 

printed page, cultivate the power of mental concentration, 
and tend to enlarge their practical vocabulary and improve 
their form of expression. 

9. In connection with these exercises it is recom- 
mended that pupils be required to copy printed composi- 
tion, both prose and poetry. This will fix new words in 
the mind, give them the form of sentences, the use of 
capitals and punctuation marks, and cultivate a style of 
expression. Many eminent literary men cultivated their 
literary taste and skill by copying passages from the master 
pieces of literature. 

10. In addition to this, pupils should be required to 
write out the fables, incidents, fairy stories, biographical in- 
cidents, etc., which are given in the oral exercises. They 
should also be required to copy the little poems, memory 
gems, etc., of their oral exercises which they have com- 
mitted to memory. This copying from memory will be 
found to be an excellent exercise in written language. 

11. Finally, pupils should be required to write original 
compositions. These at first should be simple description 
or narrative, but subsequently the}' may contain reflec- 
tions upon some suitable topic. Where there is any taste 
or inclination for it, pupils should be required to attempt 
versification or poetry, and every eflbrt of this kind should 
be received with sympathetic encouragement. Some of 
the finest writers of prose cultivated their taste for liter- 
ary expression by early attempts to write poetry. 



34 



OUTLINE OF WORK IN LANGUAGE FOR 
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GRADES. 

The following suggestions will be found of value in 
presenting the work in Language in the first four years of 
the elementary schools. These suggestions are based 
upon the principles presented in the previous discussion, 
and are adapted to the course of instruction in Language 
adopted by the Board of Public Education : — 

First Year. — [First and Second Grades.) 

I. Objects. 

(a). Common Objects. — Conversations about ; — 1. Toys. 2. Ani- 
mals. 3. A few common plants and flowers. 4. Articles in 
common use, at home and in school. 5. Familiar colors. Oral 
exercises, requiring the children to describe the place and posi- 
tion of objects in the school room by the proper use of such terms 
as, — on, above, under, left hand, right hand, left, right, before, 
behind, in the middle. 

(6). Phenomena of^ Nature. — Conversations about the sky, 
wind, clouds, water, rain, snow, sun, moon, stars; the ground, 
rocks, metals. 

II. Pictures. — Prints in black and white, colored pictures, 
and pictures sketched on the blackboard by the teacher are to be 
used. Conversations between teacher and children, the purposes 
being to develop observation and to train to correct oral expres- 
sion. Small pictures can be used to advantage for individual 
work and for simple written exercises. Encourage the children 
to state but one fact in a sentence. 

III. Literature. 

(a). Stories. — Oral reproduction of stories, told or read by 
the teacher. Such stories as fables, fairy tales, stories of child- 
life and of animals, and stories of great and good men and 
women, are to be used. 

(6). Poems. — A number of suitable selections of poetry should 
be made by the teacher. These are to be talked about, to be 
learned by the pupils and recited by them. These poems may be 
taken from the reading books supplied by the Board of Public 
Education, or from any other source at the teacher's command. 



35 

IV. Morals and Conduct.— Conyersatiooa, and stories told or 
read, to inculcate a spirit of kindness to each other, to brothers 
and sisters, to animals ; obedience to parents and teachers ; respect 
due to the aged; truthfulness. The life at home— the father and 
mother, brothers and sisters, and grandparents. Constant training 
in polite and courteous manners and forms of speech. The Golden 
Rule to be taught. 

Conversations about the care and use of the school furniture, 
the slate, sponge, pencil and books. 

V. Written Work. — After the pupils learn to write they should 
practice the copying of short sentences from the blackboard and 
the reading lessons, with the punctuation marks. The capital in 
beginning and the period or question mark in closing sentences 
should be required. 

Gradually introduce such simple written exercises as are 
within the power of the pupils. 

Teach the name of the school, its location, the name of the 
teacher, of the Principal. As soon as the child can write he should 
be taught to write his name and residence. 

VI. Correct Forms of Expression. — Special attention must be 
given to training the pupils in the correct use of I, me ; is, are ; 
was, were; has, have; saw, seen; did, done; went, gone; this, 
that ; these, those ; nothing, anything. Special exercises to pre- 
vent the use of aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), etc. Pupils 
are to be taught the correct use of the word I in all written work. 



Second Year. — {Third and Fourth Grades.) 

I. Objects. 

(a). Conversations iu which the children take part about ; — 
1. Toys. 2. Familiar animals. 3. Common plants and their 
parts (root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds). 4. Articles in 
common use. 5. Familiar colors. As far as possible, the objects 
are to be seen and handled by the pupils in these exercises. 

(6). Observations of Nature. — Conversations about the sky, 
wind, clouds, water, rain, dew, frost, ice, snow ; sun, moon, stars ; 
the ground, rocks, metals. 

(c). Conversations about the human body, its uses and beauty. 

(d). During the second half of the year— Fourth Grade — take 
the following : — 

1. Conversational lessons on common articles of food and 
drink — Bread, beef, mutton, milk, butter, cheese, tea, coffee, rice, 
fruits of different kinds. 



36 

2. Couversatioiial lessons on the following materials used for 
clothing, from what natural objects obtained : — Cotton, linen^ 
woolen, silk. Samples of the raw materials and of the manufact- 
ured products are to be used in giving these lessons. 

II. Pictures. — Observation and description of pictures. The 
teacher should aim to secure as great variety of expression as 
possible. 

III. Literature. 

(a). Stories. — Reproduction of stories told or read by the 
teacher. Reproduction of stories read silently by the pupils. 
Such stories as fables, fairy tales and legends, stories of child- 
life and of animals, stories of great and good men and women, and 
of special holidays. Reproduction of the reading lesson. 

(6). Poems. — A number of suitable selections should be made. 
These selections are to be talked about, learned by the pupils and 
recited by them. The method of treatment should vary with the 
sentiment of the poem. 

IV. Morals and Conduct. — Conversations and stories to be 
told or read, to inculcate a spirit of kindness to each other, to 
brothers and sisters, and to animals ; respect for the aged ; truth- 
fulness, unselfishness, honesty ; the care of public property. The 
Golden Rule to be taught. 

Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms 
of expression. 

The care of all articles used in the school-room, and of school 
furniture. 

V. Written Work. — Written work should accompany and be 
based upon the oral exercises. It should consist of simple sen- 
tences within the power of the pupils. 

Practice in copying short sentences from the blackboard and 
the reading book, with all the punctuation marks, including the 
apostrophe. Attention to the use of capitals and punctuation 
marks in all written exercises. 

In the Fourth Grade pupils should be taught to write the 
names of the week, the names of the months and of the seasons, in 
their order, and to use them in sentences. Exercises in writing 
proper names with capitals : — the more common names of persons ; 
the name of the school, of the city, and of the State ; the names of 
the central streets of the city, of the principal public buildings, of 
the rivers on which the city is situated. The use of these names 
in sentences. 

The school and its location, name of the teacher and of the 
Principal. 



37 

Letter-writing in the Fourth Grade. Simple exercises with 
a few sentences. 

VI. Correct Forms of Expressioti. — Special attention must be 
given to training the pupils in the correct use of I, me; is, are; 
was, were; has, have; saw, seen ; did, done ; went, gone ; this, 
that ; these, those ; nothing, anything. Special exercises to 
prevent the use of aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), etc. 



Third Year. — {Fifth and Sixth Grades.) 

I. Nature Study.— Obieciive work, oral and written exercises. 
(a). Plant Life. — Plants and their parts ; development from 

the seed ; comparison of leaves as to size and shape ; of stems as 
to form ; of flowers as to color, size and shape. In the Sixth Grade 
add — parts of plants used for food : seed, stem, leaves, roots, fruit. 
Examples of each. How plants are prepared for food. 

(6). Animal Life. — The human body and how to take care of 
it; food, wholesome and unwholesome; cleanliness — bathing; 
clothing in hot and cold weather ; care of the teeth, causes of their 
decay and how to prevent it. The work is to be conversational 
and constant reference made to the bodies of the pupils. General 
comparisons of the human body with the bodies of other animals. 

In the Sixth Grade add : — the lungs and breathing ; compar- 
ison with other animals as to t)reathing; the importance of sup- 
plying the lungs with pure air ; ventilation of rooms. 

(c). Observations of nature as in previous grades : — Rising and 
setting of the sun ; changes of the moon ; movement of the stars, etc. 
A few simple experiments in respect to air, water, magnetism, etc. 

[d). Natural features of the earth's surface. (Geography.) 

In the Sixth Grade add : — Animal and plant life in the various 
2ones ; the races of men ; ways of traveling and means of com- 
municating with friends at a distance. (Geography.) 

II. Pictures. — Oral and written exercises. 

(a). Pictures for general illustration in nature study and 
geography. 

(6). Pictures for training perception (description) ; also for 
training the imaginative faculty (story telling or narration). 

(c). Historical pictures and portraits. 

III. Literature. — Endeavor to lead the children to love and 
read good books. Reading at home should be encouraged. 

(a). Stories, Descriptions, etc. — These are to be told and read 
by the teacher, and read silently by the pupils. 



38 

Reproductions — Orally and occasionally in writing. 

1. Fables, fairy tales, legends, etc. 

2. Stories of child-life and of life in otlier lands. 

3. Stories of noble deeds and of great and good men and 
women. 

4. Stories from History. The American Flag. The special 
holidays. Patriotic selections committed and recited. 

(6). Reading Lesson. — The reading lesson should be used as a 
means of training the children in the meaning and use of words, 
in correct expression, and in cultivating a taste for good reading. 

(c). Poems. — A number of suitable selections should be made. 
These are to be talked about, learned by heart and recited. The 
method of treatment should vary with the sentiment of the poem. 
Occasional written exercises in connection with this work. 

IV. Morals and Conduct. — Select topics from previous grades, 
including kindness to persons and animals, and add courage, true 
and false bravery, manliness and womanliness. Inculcate the 
lessons by story and example. 

Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms 
of expression, 

V. Written Work. — (a). Exercises in copying paragraphs from 
the reading lessons to cultivate the power of expression and the 
correct use of capitals, punctuation marks, etc. 

(6). Exercises in writing different forms of sentences, state- 
ments, questions, the use of capitals, the period, the question 
mark, the comma with a series of words, the apostrophe, common 
abbreviations, contractions, and quotation marks. Attention to be 
given to the writing of the names of persons, familiar places, the 
days of the week, of the months, and seasons. 

(c). Letter Writing. — The form of a letter (heading, body, 
closing), and the superscription of the envelope, to receive atten- 
tion. 

(d). In the Sixth Grade add exercises in combining two or 
more statements into one sentence, and in placing the comma 
(when necessary), but no rules to be given or required. 

VI. Correct forms of expression (orally and in writing). 
Give special attention to the correction of common errors 

of speech. Review the work of the Fourth Grade. Teach also 
the correct use of come, came ; wrote, written ; knew, known ; 
took, taken. Exercises to prevent the use of such expressions as 
aint, aint got, it is me, start (for begin), where are my books' at? 
where are you going to ? 



39 

Fourth Year. — {Seventh and Eighth Grades.) 

I. Nature Study. — Objective work. Oral and written exer- 
cises. 

(a). Plant Life. — Review of the work of preceding grades. 
Trees and shrubs, — their uses to man. Various kinds of wood 
obtained from trees. Forests. 

(6). Animal Life.— The human body and how to take care of 
it. Review work of previous grades. The bony structure— skull, 
jaw, the spine (as a whole), collar-bone, shoulder blade, ribs, arms 
and hands, legs and feet. The general uses of the bones. The 
joints. The muscles. Comparisons with the skeleton of other 
animals. In the Eighth Grade add the senses. How we see and 
hear. The proper care of the eyes and ears. 

The domestic animals, their habits, and uses to man. Their 
structure as to moving about— Avalking, flying, swimming, wad- 
ing. In the Eighth Grade add the most general divisions of the 
animal kingdom — Beasts, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Shell-tish, In- 
sects. Familiar examples of each class. 

(c). Plant and animal life of the various Zones in North 
America and the United States. Metals and Minerals. In the 
Eighth Grade add similar study in regard to Pennsylvania. 

{d). Observation of Nature as in preceding grades: — The 
rising and setting of the sun and the moon ; changes of the moon ; 
motion of the stars; the North Star and the "Dipper." A few 
simple experiments in respect to air, sound, water, the siphon, 
magnetic attraction, the magnetic needle, etc. 

II. Piotures.— Oral and written exercises. 

Exercises similar to those of preceding grades. The use of 
the lantern and slides is recommended. 

III. Literature. — The teacher is again reminded that the 
purpose of the work under this head is to lead the children to love 
and read good books. Reading at home should be encouraged. 

(a). Stories, Descriptions, etc. — These are to be told and read 
by the teacher and read silently by the p\ipils. 
Occasional reproductions, oral and written. 

1. Fairy tales, legends, etc. 

2. Stories of child-life and of life in other lands. 

3. Stories of noble deeds and of great and good men and 
women. 

4. Stories from History. The American Flag. The special 
holidays. 

(6) The Reading Lesson. — The attention of the children 
should be called to simple figures as they occur in poetry and 



40 

prose, without reference to the names of the figures or to any 
definitions. 

(c). Poems. — Selections of suitable poetry, read, explained, 
committed, and recited. Occasional written exercises in connection 
with this work. Copying poetry from dictation. 

IV. Morals and Conduct. — Teach such moral qualities men- 
tioned in the preceding grades as may seem best. Add forgiveness, 
self-control, choice of companions, love of country. Inculcate by 
story and example. 

Constant training in polite and courteous manners and forms 
of expression. 

V. Written Work. — (a). Exercises in copying paragraphs from 
reading lessons to cultivate the literary taste and ability, and to 
teach the correct use of capitals, punctuation marks, etc 

(6). Exercises in writing difl^erent forms of sentences, state- 
ments, questions ; the use of capitals, the period, the question 
mark, the comma (with a series of words, and after a direct address), 
the apostrophe, common abbreviations and contractions, quotation 
marks. 

(c). Exercises in combining simple sentences into one as in 
the Sixth Grade, no rules or definitions. 

(d). Letter writing as before. Simple invitations and replies. 

In the Eighth Grade add common forms of receipt. 

VI. Correct forms of expression (orally and in writing). 

Special attention must be given to prevent the use of in- 
correct expressions, and to correct the common errors of speech. 
Review all the work of the preceding grades. Teach also the cor- 
rect use of shall, will ; maj', can. 



Note. — Special attention is called to the use of pictures in the 
school-room for teaching literature and science. Every school 
should be supplied with a lantern and lantern slides for illus- 
trative teaching. Some of our teachers have learned photog- 
raphy and make their own slides at a comparatively small ex- 
pense ; and it is suggested that it would be of great value to our 
schools if a large number of the teachers of the city would qualify 
themselves for this work. Slides can, however, be obtained at a 
comparatively low rate, and arrangements can often be made by 
which they can be exchanged among the teachers. 



41 



LANGUAGE IN GRAMMAR GRADES. 

The suggestions for teaching Language, just presented, 
are especially designed for the lower grades of the ele- 
mentary schools. The principles of instruction involved 
are, however, common to all grades, and many of the 
particular suggestions also apply to the grades of the 
grammar schools. The course of study in Language for 
the grammar grades of the city is definitely outlined in 
the Course of Listruction for those grades; but a few 
general suggestions will be added to aid the teacher in 
imparting this instruction. 

One object of the instruction in Language in the gram- 
mar grades is to make pupils familiar with the English 
Language. Every graduate of the grammar schools 
should be able to understand and explain the nature and 
structure of literary productions. In order to do this they 
must be carefully drilled in the technicalities of the sub- 
ject, including orthography, capitalization, punctuation, 
the meaning of words, the grammatical relations, etc. 

This is purely an intellectual attainment, and may 
exist without either an appreciation of literature or any 
skill in literary production. Indeed, care has to be taken 
that it does not weaken or even kill literary appreciation. 
In addition to this technical knowledge of Language, the 
pupils should be taught to appreciate the ideas and senti- 
ments of literature. One of the most important require- 
ments of a teacher of Language is to cultivate on the 
part of the pupil a taste for literature. 

In addition to the acquisition of a knowledge of 
English and a taste for literature, the pupils should be 
led to acquire a certain amount of skill in the expres- 
sion of their own ideas and thoughts. They should be 
able to think and to present their thoughts in literary 
form, expressing their knowledge in spoken and written 



42 

language with accuracy, facility, and felicity. These three 
objects — a knowledge of English, a taste for Literature, and 
skill in the use of Language — should be kept prominently 
in mind in the language work of the grammar grades. 

In adding a few suggestions for the teaching of Lan- 
guage in the grammar grades, let it be remembered that 
instruction in English embraces two things which may 
be distinguished as the technics of the Language and the 
reality of Language ; in other words, the/orm and the contents 
of the Language. The technics of English include spelling, 
pronunciation, capitalization, punctuation, and grammar, 
and also the ability to construct clear and correct sen- 
tences. The contents of expression include the idea, the 
sentiment, the poetic imager}', the felicity of expression, 
etc. These two things are entirely different in their 
nature and require different methods of instruction. They 
are both essential to the work of the grammar grades, and 
are so intimately related that they must be taught to- 
gether in the work of the school. A few suggestions will 
be made in respect to both of these two classes of topics. 

Instructiox in the Technics of Language. 

Under the technics of Language, as above stated, may 
be included Orthography, Pronunciation, Capitalization, 
Punctuation and Grammar, all of which require the special 
attention of the teacher of the grammar grades. 

1. Orthography. — Pupils in the grammar grades 
should be taught to spell the large majority of words in 
common use. To accomplish this they should be taught 
to notice the orthography of words, and thus acquire the 
habit of seeing how words are spelled. Attention to 
orthography should be given in all the branches. Lists of 
words frequently misspelled should be prepared and the 
pupils should be drilled upon them. In the higher grades, 
at least, the spelling-book will be found a valuable assist- 
ant in teaching orthography, though it must be used with 



43 

intelligence and good judgment. While the value of cor- 
rect spelliiig may have been overestimated among the 
earlier teachers, there is a tendency among modern edu- 
cators to undervalue it. Even so eminent an authority as 
Professor March says : " Stress is laid on it as the sign 
of a thoroughly educated person out of all proportion to 
its real value." Correct spelling, however, cannot but be 
regarded as an indication of a cultivated and scholarly 
mind. Its true value may be indicated, perhaps, by the 
saying that while " there is no great credit in being a good 
speller, there is great discredit in being a poor one." 

2. Pro7iunciation. — Teachers will exercise care that 
their pupils pronounce words correctly. Indeed, correct 
pronunciation is of quite as much importance as correct 
spelling, since we make constant use of spoken words, 
while we use written composition less frequently. A mis- 
spelled word is an offense to the eye, but a mispronounced 
word is an offense to the ear ; and the ear is as delicate and 
refined as the eye. Teachers therefore should be extremely 
particular in respect to the pronunciation of their pupils. 
They should observe carefully the mistakes of their pupils 
in conversation and reading, and train them to correct 
articulation and accent. Frequent drills on the elemen- 
tary sounds will be of value in securing correct articula- 
tion. * 

Drills in the pronunciation of w^ords frequently mis- 
pronounced are suggested. It will be well for each pupil 
to make a list of the words she usually mispronounces 
and frequently repeat them correctly. Pronunciation is a 
habit, and it requires great care to change from the incor- 
rect to the correct pronunciation of a word. Above all 
the teacher should be particular to pronounce correctly 
herself as a model for her pupils to imitate. 

3. Capitalization. — The pupils of the grammar grades 
should be taught the correct use of capital letters. This 
is so simple a matter that it will be readily mastered by 



44 

the pupils. They should be taught to observe the use of 
capitals in their reading lessons. Dictation exercises in 
which the pupils are required to write sentences and para- 
graphs using the capitals properly will be found a valuable 
means of teaching the subject. Occasionally written exer- 
cise with capitals omitted, or improperly used, may be 
given them to correct. 

4. Punctuation. — The pupils of the grammar grades 
should be taught the ordinar}- use of the punctuation 
marks. The use of the period, and the interrogation and 
exclamation marks will be readily acquired. The princi- 
pal uses of the comma, semicolon, and colon may also be 
learned in the higher grades. In teaching this subject do 
not have the pupils commit " rules of punctuation," but 
teach the correct use of the marks by example and prac- 
tice. Call attention to the punctuation in the reading 
books, and give unpunctuated exercises for them to punctu- 
ate correctly. Exercises also in the use of quotation marks 
should be given. 

5. GraNimar. — The course in grammar is begun in the 
fifth school year, and continues four years. It embraces 
the parts of speech, their modifications and relations, the 
construction and analysis of sentences, and exercises in the 
correction of false syntax, all of which is set forth in detail 
in the Graded Course of Instruction. Tlie instruction 
should be given in the concrete, making language the 
basis of grammar, and not by committing and reciting 
the abstract definitions of the text-book. A few sug- 
gestions for the details of the course are appended to this 
discussion. 

In connection with the instruction in theoretical gram- 
mar, great care should be taken to secure the practical 
application of these principles in the use of Language. 
Everj' recitation should be a lesson in the use of good Eng- 
lish. Attention should be called to the mistakes of pupils, 
and correct forms constantly insisted upon until the habit 



45 

of correct speech is formed. Remember, that habit is 
stronger than knowledge; and that " eternal vigilance" is 
the price not only of liberty but of good English. Pupils 
are naturally careless in their expression, and they will 
never acquire the habit of correct expressions until they 
are made to feel the importance of habitual carefulness in 
their oral and written work. 

Instruction in the Use of Language. 

"While this technical knowledge of English is of great 
value and is even necessary, there is a higher and more 
valuable work which demands the teacher's attention. 
This higher work includes the cultivation of a literary 
taste to appreciate and enjoy literature and also the skill 
to create literary productions. The value of this part of 
the work is inestimable. No greater benefit can be con- 
ferred upon a pupil than to cultivate in him a love for the 
masterpieces of literature, and the ability to express his 
thoughts and sentiments in correct and attractive literary 
form. 

This element of the problem is as difficult as it is im- 
portant. Almost any teacher familiar with the subject 
can train pupils in the technical part of English ; but teach- 
ers who can awaken in the minds of their pupils a real 
love for literature and literary expressions are rare. Many 
attempts have recently been made to present a Course of 
Instruction adapted to secure this end, but no system has 
yet received the general approval of educators. The study 
of Latin, in which the pupil is continually using English 
words in his translation and weighing the value of the 
words in his dictionary in order to select the most appro- 
priate one, has been largely depended upon to cultivate 
literary taste and talent. Many pupils, however, do not 
desire to take a course in Latin or Greek, and the problem 
is what course in the study of English can be substituted 
for the study of the classical languages that will produce 




46 

the same or even better results. Educators are still wait- 
ing for a complete solution of this problem. What we 
need is a course of instruction in English that will give a 
taste for and skill in the use of English. 

The success of such a course, it should be remem- 
bered, depends more upon the teacher than upon the 
method. A good teacher with no definite method will 
produce better results than a poor teacher with the best 
method that can be devised. It depends not so much on 
instruction as on inspiration ; and what is especially 
needed is literary inspiration on the part of the teacher 
which will awaken literary enthusiasm upon the part of 
the pupil. For this work only a few suggestions can be 
made, and these will be somewhat an amplification of 
several suggestions previously made for the primary 
grades. 

1. Reading Good Lilerature. — Literary taste and skill are 
cultivated by reading good literature. Reading gives 
words and enlarges the vocabulary, and also gives facility 
in the use of words to express thought. Those pupils 
who have read most will generally be found to excel in 
the use of Language. It is not unusual to find pupils 
deficient in the technical branches who write excellent 
compositions; and upon inquiry it will usually be found 
that they have read much, even if it is only light litera- 
ture. The best scholars in the school branches are often 
poor writers, the cause of which is that they have done so 
little reading. By reading we acquire a vocabulary of 
words, understand their meaning and their use, become 
familar with the style of an author, and insensibly form a 
style of our own. Many distinguished men have cul- 
tivated their literary taste and formed their style of ex- 
pression by the constant and thorough reading of a few- 
books. Lincoln received his language culture largely from 
reading the Pilgrim's Progress ; and Kossuth's masterly 
knowledge of English was acquired by the study of 



47 

Shakespeare and the English Bible. " The modern uni- 
versity," Carlyle aptly says, " is a collection of books." 

2. Copying Productions. — It is a valuable literary exer- 
cise to copy passages of literature. Copying an author 
will make a deeper impression upon the mind than even a 
careful reading of one. Sight strikes deeper than sound ; 
to execute form stamps it upon the memory like a die on 
the waxen tablet. Going over a production, word by word 
and sentence by sentence, writing it out in full, will impress 
the language and style of an author deeply upon the 
literary sense. I would, therefore, frequently require 
pupils to " copy compositions." If a paragraph could be 
written every day on slate or paper, it would do much for 
the pupil's literary growth. Many writers, ancient and 
modern, have practiced copying the productions of the 
masters of literature. Demosthenes copied the history of 
Thucydides seven or eight times in order to acquire his 
clear, concise, and elegant style. 

3. Committing Productions. — Literary taste is cultivated 
by committing literary productions. Committing makes 
a deeper impression upon the mind than either reading or 
copying. It tends to fix the words in the memory, and 
deepen the channels of thought and expression. It gives, 
as it were, literary molds in which to run one's own 
thoughts, or forms literary channels in which our thoughts 
and sentiments will naturally flow out into expression. 
This has also been the practice of many who have attained 
excellence in the use of Language. Burke and Pitt culti- 
vated their wonderful powers of oratory by committing 
the orations of Demosthenes. Fox committed the book of 
Job, and drew from it his grandeur and force of expres- 
sion. Lord Chatham read and re-read the sermons of Dr. 
Barrow until he knew many of them by heart. 

The old practice of declaiming pieces and giving reci- 
tations was of great value in the cultivation of literary 
taste and skill. These selections presented models of style 



48 

and stimulated thought and expression. Indeed, the 
declamations of early years often did more to shape the 
literary taste and give skill in expression than the entire 
college course in classics, rhetoric, and literature. The 
style of literary expression of yolmg men after their gradu- 
ation from college and the entrance upon a profession, can 
often be traced back to the culture derived from their 
declamation exercises in public school or academy. 

4. Creating Compositions. — The final outcome of liter- 
ary culture is the ability to write well. This is the crowning 
work of literary training and development. Toward this 
end all the previous training tends, and in this it should 
culminate. That the task is a difficult one, all will admit. 
A few pupils seem to have a natural aptitude for literary 
expression and write well without much instruction, while 
others seem to be deficient in this respect. In some cases 
there is no doubt a natural gift for expression, but in many 
cases it will be seen that the pupils have been subjected 
to literary influences in early years either by hearing intel- 
lectual conversation or by reading good books. The 
majority' of the pupils of our elementary schools do not 
write well, and need special training to acquire skill in 
formulating and expressing their ideas. It is believed that 
with proper training, long enough continued, all ordinary 
pupils may attain to real excellence in literary expression. 

To outline a course in teaching composition writing 
would require a volume, and only a few suggestions can 
be presented here. Literary expression involves three 
things: (1) Material for expression, consisting of ideas, 
facts, thoughts, sentiments, etc.; (2) a vocabulary of words 
with which to express mental products; and (3) a correct 
and pleasing style of expression. 

The material for expression can be obtained by obser- 
vation, conversation, reading, reflection, and imagination, 
to all of which the pupil can and should be trained. A 
vocabulary of words is obtained by hearing spoken 



49 

language, by general reading, by the study of text-books, 
by committing passages of literature, by the use of the 
dictionary, and the study of the classical languages. A 
good style of expression is obtained by the study and imi- 
tation of the masters of English composition as already 
explained. 

Remember, in composition writing, that children 
should first be taught to write from what they see or know 
by personal observation. This is fundamental, and if 
neglected all other exercises are of comparativel}- little 
value. Material for composition writing can also be ob- 
tained from the supplementary readers and the lessons in 
difterent branches of study. Exercises should be required 
in the reproduction of stories, narratives, and descriptions 
told or read to or by the pupils, as previously explained. 
There should also be exercises in paraphrazing poetry, in 
letter writing, in preparing and expanding outlines of 
composition, and in writing upon set themes. 

5. The Reading Lesson. — The reading lesson gives afine 
opportunity for literary culture in both its technical and 
its general features. The most valuable text-book in the 
public schools is a good school reader. In using it, the 
first object should be to train the pupil to " thought-get- 
ting." In the oral expression of the thought, be sure that 
the pupils read in a natural, simple, conversational style. 
Do not permit the unnatural and artificial " word-calling" 
so often heard in the public schools. Lead the pupils to 
acquire the habit of expressing the thought from the 
printed page just as if they were talking to you and their 
classmates. 

Use the reading lesson also for special literary train- 
ing. Call attention to the meaning of words, to the 
felicity or beauty of expression, to the figurative language, 
including similes, metaphors, personifications, etc. Explain 
the historical and mythological allusions that may be found 
in the extract read. In poetry call attention to the rhyme 



50 

and the metre, including the accent, the number of poetical 
feet in a line, the nature of blank verse, etc. All the 
fundamental principles of rhetoric can in this way be easily 
taught, and such knowledge will be a valuable preparation 
to the pupils when in the higher schools they take up the 
story of Rhetoric as a science. 

To attain satisfactory results in the teaching of Lan- 
guage, the whole scheme of work should be mapped out 
minutely by the head of the school, who isfamiliar alike with 
the degree of advancement of pupils and the standard of 
attainment required of them. Without this no proper 
co-ordination of the work in the different branches and 
their relation to Language is possible. The Principal or 
Supervising Principal should see that every teacher under- 
stands her work, and does it in accordance with the prin- 
ciples of scientific instruction. The school-room is the 
place for work, for careful, correct and artistic work; and 
no teacher is worthy of a place in our schools who is not 
willing to bend every energy to doing her work in the 
best possible manner. It needs the same spirit of con- 
secration to be a good teacher as it does to be a successful 
preacher. 

In concluding these general directions for Language 
work, we urge teachers to take special pains to cultivate a 
taste for literature on the part of their pupils. This is 
often a difficult task, but it will repay all the labor 
required. It cannot be done in a day or a year, for it is 
an invisible growth of the intellectual and aesthetic nature. 
Literary taste and skill are both the result of literary 
growth. A student can master a text-book on geometry or 
algebra in a few months, but literary culture is the work 
of a life-time. Literary skill is an organic product ; like 
the growth of a plant, it comes by the mind feeding, as it 
were, on the ideas and sentiments and expressions of 
literary writers, and assimilating these in the mental and 
spiritual growth. All this training requires time and 



51 

patience, but if continued day by day the result will crown 
the work. 

Reading Good Books. 

The value of reading good books both for general cul- 
ture and the culture of Language cannot be overestimated. 
Literary culture comes through the reading of literature. 
The best writers obtained their literary taste by reading 
well-written and interesting books. One of the best things 
a teacher can do for her pupils is to develop a taste for 
good reading. The greatest blessings the city could 
confer upon its citizens would be to put a library of well- 
selected books into each of the public schools. 

In my course of lectures to the teachers last winter, I 
suggested that they would do a most worthy work for their 
pupils if they could make a collection of books and start 
a small library in their schools. This recommendation 
met with a cordial response from Principals and assistants, 
and a movement was set on foot in several schools which 
is full of promise for the future. Several Principals and 
their assistants by personal solicitation and contribution 
have already laid the foundation of a good working library 
of well-selected books in their schools. Efforts similar to 
those by which money was obtained to put pianos into the 
schools are recommended in the interest of school libraries. 
This movement already started is worthy of high commen- 
dation, and it is hoped that it may become general. By 
securing the interest and co-operation of pupils and parents, 
little libraries can be formed in every public school in the 
city. 

These books should be selected with a view to the 
tastes and needs of pupils. They should be classified so 
far as possible in accordance with their age and culture. 
The course in reading should be directed by the teacher. 
Teachers can do much to stimulate a taste among their 
pupils for reading by talking to them about books, asking 
questions upon what they have read, etc. Remember, that 



52 

a few well-chosen books, carefully and thoughtfully read, 
will do more for the culture of literary taste and skill than 
many books carelessly and hastily skimmed. Some of the 
most eminent writers and speakers developed their admir- 
able literary skill by the careful reading of a few choice 
volumes in their early years. Remember, also, that "if 
we are to cultivate a taste for good reading among the 
masses of the people, the work must be begun before the 
children have formed the habit of reading poor and 
vicious books." 

In directing the reading of the pupils of the element- 
ary schools, endeavor to lead them to cultivate a taste for 
history. History properly read and understood is more 
interesting than fiction. Especially try to interest them 
in the history of our own country, and thus kindle the 
spirit of patriotism in their hearts. Lead them to become 
familiar with the inspiring history and marvelous develop- 
ment of the Republic, to understand the underlying prin- 
ciples of free government, and to obtain a true concep- 
tion of the rights, privileges, and duties of American 
citizens. The youth of America should be proud of the 
birthright of freedom, and feel it to be their duty to guard 
its institutions and aid in transmitting them to the future. 
Every boy and girl should be led to realize that free 
government is the hope and destiny of the world. 



4f.: 



4'^ 



53 



OUTLINE OF WORK IN LANGUAGE FOR THE 
GRAMMAR GRADES. 

The work in Language for the first four years is 
co-ordinated with the work in Nature Study and Literature. 
The outline here given for the Grammar Grades is arranged 
to correspond with the Course in Language adopted by the 
Board of Public Education. It is presented under two 
general divisions — General Language Work and Work in 
Grammar. 

Fifth Year. — (Ninth Grade.) 

I. Language Work.— OvhI and written exercises in the use of 
language as the expression of tiioughti 

1. Review the work of previous grades. 

2. Suitable selections of prose and poeti'y to be committed 
and recited. 

3. The attention of pupils to be called to simple figures of 
rhetoric as they occur, without reference to tlie names of the 
figures or to any definitions. 

4. Reproduction of stories, descriptions, etc., read to the class 
by the teacher, or read silently by the pupils. 

5. Material for conversations, short written statements, and 
simple compositions : — The reading lesson (prose and poetry), 
lessons in geography, history, and elementary science, objects and 
places with which the pupils are familiar, ways of traveling and 
means of communicating with friends at a distance, pictures of 
incidents and of scenery, occupations, etc. 

6. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 

7. Endeavor to have pupils read some good books on history, 
literature, and science. 

II. Grammar. — Special attention to be given to the sentence 
as the basis of work in grammar. 

1. Nouns and verbs, adjectives and adverbs, pronouns. To 
be taught from their use in sentences. 

2. The plurals of nouns and pronouns and the corresponding 
changes required in the verb. The general rule for forming the 
plural of nouns — by adding s to the singular. The changes in form 
to be noted and stated by pupils before reference to rule. Other 
modifications of singular form to be taken up as they occur as 



54 

matters of spelling chiefly. Also, such regular nouns as are pro- 
perly comprehended in Fifth Year work. 

3. The agreement of the verb with its subject in number 
only. The subject must be a noun or a pronoun. Other parts of 
speech used as nouns, and phrases, to be excluded. Teach the 
general rule, the general rule for subjects connected by and, and 
the rule for subjects in the singular connected by or or nor. 

4. The use of 's in indicating possession in singular and plural 
nouns; teach the general rule — the apostrophe and s aliuaya to be 
annexed except when the subject form in the plural ends with «. 

5. Adjectives, articles, and adverbs as modifiers, without 
special attention to changes of form, and without clasnification. 

6. Analysis of simple sentences, having single words as 
modifiers of the subject and predicate; to be confined to distin- 
guishing, (1) the simple subject and predicate ; (2) the modifiers of 
the subject and predicate ; (3) the complete subject and predicate. 
Synthesis of simple sentences. Simple exercises in enlarging 
sentences by adding modifiers of the subject, or of the predicate, 
or of both. 

7. The proper use of punctuation marks. Special attention 
given to the period, question mark, quotation marks, exclamation 
mark, the comma, and to paragraphing. 

8. Attention to the correction of errors of speech as they 
occur, in all exercises. 

Sixth Year. — {Tenth Grade.) 

I. Language Work. — Oral and written exercises in tlie use of 
language as the expression of thought. 

1. Review the work of previous grades. 

2. Suitable selections of prose and poetry to be committed 
and recited by the pupils. 

3. The attention of pupils to be called to figurative language, 
as it occurs in reading, without special reference to the names of 
figures or to any definitions. 

4. Reproductions of stories, narratives, descriptions, etc., read 
to the class or read silently by the pupils. . 

5. Oral and written abstracts of lessons in reading (both prose 
and poetry), geography, history, and elementary science. 

6. Compositions on subjects with which pupils are familiar. 

7. Exercises in the meaning and use of words in connection 
with all subjects of study. 

8. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 

9. Letter Writing. — Social and business letters. Care in 
respect to matter and form. 



55 

10. Endeavox* to have pupils read some good books on history, 
literature, and science. 

11. G'rammar.— Special attention to be given to the sentence 
as the basis of work in grammar. 

1. Parts of speech and their properties. 

(a). Proper and common nouns. The simple personal pro- 
nouns only. The gender, number, person, and case of nouns and 
pronouns. 

Gender. — Masculine, feminine, neuter. The gender to be 
determined by the meaning and use of the word. No lists. 

Number. — Changes of form noted, stated by pupils, and finally 
formulated into rules. 

Person. — Of little value as applied to nouns. Useful as deter- 
mining the forms of the personal pronouns. 

Case. — Further exercises in tbe possessive forms of nouns. 
Thorough drill in nominative and objective cases from subject and 
object relations. 

(6). The number, person and tense (present, past and future) 
of verbs. 

Verbs of active and passive forms in all the modes (except 
infinitive) in which the time, present, past, or future, is clearly 
indicated. Voice and mode and their forms as such not to be 
named. 

(e). Comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Comparison by 
annexing er and est, or using more and most, less and least ; also 
the three forms of irregular comparison. Omit comparisons in two 
forms. 

No classification of adjectives or adverbs is required. 

[d). Other parts of speech to be known and recognized as 
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, merely. 

2. Simple sentences with simple prepositional modifiers. 
Analysis and synthesis. The analysis should include only the 
designation of the following: — 

(a). The complete subject and the complete predicate. 

(-&). The simple subject and the simple predicate. 

(c). The modifiers (words and phrase) of the simple subject, 
and of the simple predicate, and statement of what kind— from its 
use — each modifier is. 

The structure and the analysis of phrase modifiers should be 
made the subjects of separate questions, if further evidence of the 
pupil's understanding of the nature and the function of such modi- 
fiers be required. 

3. Principles of Syntax as indicated in the meaning, use and 
relations of words specified in the limits. 



56 

Agreement of verb with subject in numbers and person. Tlie 
principles stated in the Ninth Grade to be applied to verbs and 
pronouns in the Tenth Grade. Add singular and plural words con- 
nected by or^ or nor. No attention need be paid to pronouns stand- 
ing for words of different jjersons. 

Attention to the correction of errors of speech as they occur 
in all exercise. 

4. The proper use of punctuation marks as in Ninth Grade. 
Add the general rule for the use of the semicolon in simplest con- 
structions. 

Seventh Year. — {Eleventh Grade.) 

I. Language Work. — Oral and written exercises in the use of 
written language as the expression of thought. 

1. Review the work of previous grades. 

2. Suitable selections of jirose and poetry to be committed 
and recited by pupils. 

3. Attention called to figurative language, including the simile, 
metaphor, personification, apostrophe, ellipses. These to be named 
and described by the pupils as they occur in the reading and other 
lessons. 

4. Reproductions of stories, narratives, descriptions, etc., read 
to the class or read silently or at home by the pupils. 

/i. Oral and written abstracts of lessons in reading (both 
prose and poetry), geography, history, and elementary science. 

6. Compositions on subjects with which pupils are familiar, 
telling what they have seen, what they think about something, 

etc. 

7. Exercises in the meaning and use of words, in connection 
with all subjects of study. 

8. Letter Writing. — Social and business letters, with care 
respect to matter, expression, and form. 

9. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 

10. Endeavor to have pupils read some suitable books 
history, literature, and science. 

11. Grammar.— Special attention to the se?i<e;ice as the basi-s 
of work in grammar. 

1. Simple, compound, and complex sentences. 

2. Exercises in the analysis and synthesis of sentences. 

3. The relative clause, adverbial clause, participial phrase 
and appositional word or phrase as modifiers. 

4. The analysis of sentences should inxjlude only the desigua 
tion of the following : — 



57 

(a). The complete subject and the complete predicate. 

(6). The simple subject and the simple predicate. 

(c). The modifiers (word, phrase, and clause) of the simple 
subject and the simple predicate, and statement of what kind — 
from its use — each modifier is. 

The structure and the analysis of phrase and clause modifiers 
should be made the subjects of separate questions, if further 
evidence of the pupil's understanding of the nature and function 
of such modifiers be required. 

5. Parts of speech and their properties. 

(a). Nouns.— Classified as proper and common nouns. Some 
attention to the forms of compound nouns. 

Pronouns. — Add compound personal pronouns; also, simple 
relatives, as necessary to the formation of complex sentences. 

(6). Adjectives. — Add 'pronominal adjectives without classi- 
fication. When the noun is expressed, regard them as pronominal 
adjectives. When not expressed regard as pronouns. 

Omit other classes of adjectives. 

(c). Verbs.— Classify as regular and irregular, transitive and 
intransitive. Attention to forms of irregular verbs likely to be 
misused. Discrimination between past tense and perfect parti- 
ciple. No defective verbs, nor emphatic, progressive, interroga- 
tive, or negative forms. 

Frequent, careful, thorough drill in nature, meaning and use 
of auxiliaries. Careful study of voice, mode, tense and their 
forms. Take the infinitive mode and the participle as necessary 
to determine phrases in analysis. 

Discourage conjugation ; encourage the determining of prop- 
erties and forms of verbs from their meaning and use in the 
sentence, through repeated exercises. 

(d). Adverbs. — Add conjunctive adverbs, as necessary to the 
formation of complex sentences. 

(e). Prepositions. — The simple prepositions. Take the others 
without classification. 

(/). Conjunctions. — No classification. Special attention to 
such as are used in forming complex and compound sentences. 

6. Principals of syntax.— Agreement as in Tenth Grade 
extended to relative pronouns ; — in all instances the meaning to 
be regarded as essential. Add case independent by address ; and 
case in apposition as a modifier. 

Attention to correction of errors of speech as they occur, in 
all exercises. 

7. The proper use of punctuation marks. The colon not 
required. 



58 



Eighth Year. — {Twelfth Grade.) 

I. Language Work. — Oral and written exercises in the use of 
language as the expression of thought. 

1. Review of the work of previous grades. 

2. Suitable selections of prose and poetry to be committed 
and recited by the pupils. Occasional formal "recitations" and 
" declamations " before the class or school. 

3. Figurative Language. — The following figures in addition to 
those learned in the Eleventh Grade ; — Synecdoche, metonymy, 
hyperbole, antithesis, climax, irony. These are to be named and 
described by the pupils as they occur in the reading and other 
lessons. 

4. Abstracts, amplitications, and condensations of stories, 
narratives, and descriptions. Paraphrasing of poetry. 

5. The lessons in reading (both prose and poetry), geography, 
history, and elementary science are to be used as the basis of 
language work. 

6. Preparation and expansion of outlines of composition. 

7. Composition writing on subjects upon which the pupils 
have actual knowledge. 

8. Exercises in choice of words, arrangement of words, clear- 
ness of expression, and figurative language. 

9. Exercises in the meaning and use of words in all the 
branches of study. 

10. Letter Writing. — Social and business letters, invitations 
and replies, receipts, notes, checks, etc. Care in respect to heading, 
superscription, addressing, etc. 

11. Every lesson should be made a lesson in language. 

12. Endeavor to have pupils read some good books on history, 
literature, and science. 

II. Grammar. — Special attention to the sentence as the basis 
of work in grammar. 

1. Simple, compound, and complex sentences. 

2. Analysis and synthesis of sentences. The analysis of 
sentences should include only the designation of the following: — 

(a). The complete subject and the complete predicate. 

(6). The simple subject and the simple predicate. 

(c). The modifiers (word, phrase, and clause) of the simple 
subject and the simple predicate, and statement of what kind — 
from its use — each modifier is. 

{d). The structure and the analysis of phrase and clause modi- 
fiers should be made the subjects of special questions, if further 



59 

evidence of the pupil's understanding of the nature and function 
of such modifiers be required. 

(e). Parsing within the limits indicated. No rules. Set forms, 
useless phraseology, and needless repetition to be omitted. 

3. Parts of speech, — their properties and inflections. 

(a). Nouns as in the Eleventh Grade. Some attention to the 
nature of collective nouns. 

(6). Verbs as in the Eleventh Grade. Attention to the infin- 
itive and participle in phrases. 

(c). Adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and coujunctions as in 
the Eleventh Grade. Attention to the use of appropriate prep- 
ositions, and of corresponding or correlative conjunctions, but no 
lists are to be memorized. 

4. Principles of Syntax as in the Eleventh Grade. Attention 
to forms of possessives connected to denote separate or joint pos- 
session. 

Attention to predicate nominative and predicate adjective. 

Ellipsis of the relative, the preposition, and of to in the in- 
finitive. 

Two negatives in the same sentence. 

Agreement of verbs and pronouns determined by the meaning 
intended (in the sentence). 

Attention to the correction of all errors of speech as they 
occur. 

5. Proper use of punctuation marks as in the Eleventh Grade. 



60 



LIST OF BOOKS 

FOR LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND FOR GENERAL READING. 



To aid teachers in making selections for their pupils 
the following list of books, with a suggestion of classifica- 
tion for different grades, is presented. The classification 
by years is merely suggestive and need not be absolutely 
adopted. Books on the list for supplementary reading 
adopted by the Board of Public Education are marked 
with a star. 

First and Second Years. 

*Easy Steps for Little Feet. Swinton and Cathcart. 

*Primer and Reader. Riverside Series. 

*Verse and Prose for Beginners in Reading. Riverside Series 

*Heart of Oak Books. Vol. I. Edited by Norton. 

*Storie8 for Young Children. Turner. 

*^9op's Fables. Riverside, Maynard, and Ginn. 

*Fables and Folk Stories. Riverside Series. 

^Andersen's Fairy Tales. Riverside, Maynard, and Ginn 

Burke's Fairy Tales for Little Readers. Lovell & Co 
*Bow Wow and Mew Mew. Maynard Classics. 

Stories for Children. Mrs. C. A. Lane. 

In the Child's World. Poulsson. 

Stories for Little Readers. Poulsson. 

Little Folk Life. Gail Hamilton. 

Stories Told to a Child. 2 vols. Jean Ingelow. 
*8tories of Cats and Dogs. Johonnot. 

Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks. Wiltse. 
*The Child's Book of Nature. Hooker. 
*The World and Its People. Book I. 

*Appropriate Selections of Poetry from the various Readers in use 
History of My Pets. Grace Greenwood. 
Poetry for Children. Edited by Samuel Eliot. 
The Story Hour. Wiggin and Smith. 



61 



Third and Fourth Years. 

*Book of Tales. Edited by Wm. Swinton and G. R. Cathcart. 
*Golden Book of Choice Reading. Edited by Swinton and Cathcart. 

Seven Little People and Their Friends. Scudder. 

The Little Duke. Miss Yonge. 

The Little Lame Prince. Miss Yonge. 

The Children's Book of Best Literature. Scudder. 

Dream Children. Scudder. 
*Fairy Tales. Scudder. 

*Fairy Tales. Grimm. Riverside and Maynard. 
*Fairy Tales. Andersen. Riverside and Maynard. 

The Nine Worlds. Stories from Norse Mythology. Litchfield. 
*Heart of Oak Books. Vol. II. 
*The Wonder Book. Hawthorne. 
*Tanglewood Tales. Hawthorne. 

Stories from Plato. M. E. Burt. 

Fairy Stories and Fables. James Baldwin. 

Adventures of a Brownie. Miss Muloch. 

Queer Little People. H. B. Stowe. 

Grandmother Dear. Mrs. Molesworth. 
*Child Life in Prose. Whittier. 

Dottie Dimple Stories. (Six Books.) Sophie May. 

Bedtime Stories. Miss Alcott. 

Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans. Eggleston. 
*Black Beauty. Mrs. Sewell. 
*Robinson Crusoe. I)eFoe. 

The Lucy Books. Abbott. 3 vols. 

The Rollo Books. Abbott. 7 vols. 

Stories of Bible History. Miss Yonge. 
*First Book of American History. Eggleston. 
^Child's History of the United States. Goodrich. 
*Beginner's American History. Montgomery. Ginn & Co. 

Stories from Greek History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from Roman History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from English History. Miss Yonge. 

Ten Boys who Lived on the Road, etc. Andrews. 
*The Nurnberg Stove. Maynard Classics. 
*The Child's Book of Nature. Hooker. 

Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children. Andrews. 

Little Flower People. G. E. Hale. 
*Cats and Dogs. Johonnot. 

*Reading in Nature's Book. Swinton and Cathcart. 
*The World and Its People. Books II. and III. 



62 

The World by the Fireside. Kirby. 

Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard. Kirby. 

The Fairy Geography. Winslow. 

Brooks and Brook Basins. Frye. 

The Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 

Stories for Home Folks. Grace Greenwood. 

Each and All. Jane Andrews. 

Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. Miss Yonge. 

Little Folks of Other Lands. Humphrey. 

Young Folks' Queries. Uncle Lawrence. 

Young Folks' Whys and Wherefores. Uncle Lawrence. 

Young Folks' Ideas. Uncle Lawrence. 

POETRY. 

*Selections from the various Readers in use. 

*Selections from Longfellow, Bryant, etc. Maynard Classics. 

Select Poetry for Children. Samuel Eliot. 

Child's Book of Poetry. Porter & Coates. 

Open Sesame. Three Volumes of Poetry for School Use. 

Poetry and Songs of Childhood. Harper. 
*Child Life in Poetry. Whittier. 

The Riverside Song Book. 

A Little Book of Western Verse. Eugene Field. 

Love Songs of Childhood. Eugene Field. 

Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Years. 

Attention is called to the lists of Classics, in prose and poetry, 
which are now supplied for tbe use of the Philadelphia schools. 
Only a few of these are mentioned by name in the following list : — 

The Children's Book of Best Literature. Scudder. 

American Prose Selections. Scudder. 
*Heart of Oak Books. Vols, II, III, IV, V. Norton. 

Six Selected Stories from the Arabian Nights. Samuel Eliot. 
*Tanglewood Tales. Hawthorne. 
*The Wonder Book. Hawthorne. 

True Stories from New England History. Hawthorne. 

Twice Told Tales. Hawthorne. 
*Stories of Greek Heroes. Kingsley. 
*Water Babies. Kingsley. 

Old Greek Stories. James Baldwin. 

The Story of the Ilisid. Edward Brooks. 

The Story of the Odyssey. Edward Brooks. 



63 

*Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Maynard Classics. 

Rip Van Winkle. Irving. 

The Days of Bruce. Grace Aquilar. 

Stories and Tales. Complete Edition. 3 vols. Hans Andersen. 
*Stories of the Old World. Church. 
*Plutarch's Lives. Selected. 
*Tales from Shakespeare. Lamb. 
*Adventures of Ulysses. Lamb. 

*Fairy Tales in Prose and Verse. Rolfe's English Classics. 
*Scott's Tales of Chivalry. Rolfe's English Classics. 
*Seven American Classics. Swinton and Cathcart. 
*8even British Classics. Swinton and Cathcart. 
*Rasselas. Dr. Johnson. 

Gulliver's Travels. Ginn & Co. 
*The King of the Golden River. Ruskin. 
*Selections from the Sketch Book. Irving. 
*Robinson Crusoe. DeFoe. Ginn & Co. 
*Rab and His Friends. Maynard Classics. 
*The Swiss Family Robinson. Wyss. Ginn & Co. 
*The Prince and Peasant. Martineau. 
*Book of Golden Deed?. Miss Yonge. 

Bimbi ; including A Dog of Flanders, etc. De La Rame. 

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Carroll. 

Hans Brinker. M. M. Dodge. 

Little Women. Miss Alcott. 

Spinning Wheel Stories. Miss Alcott. 

The Prince and the Page. Miss Yonge. 
*Joan of Arc. Maynard Classics. 

Melchior's Dream. Mrs. Ewing. 

Hector; a Story for Young People. Flora L. Shaw. 

Being a Boy. Charles Dudley Warner. 

A Man Without a Country. E. E. Hale, 

Jungle Stories. Rudyard Kipling. 

A Noble Life. Miss Mulock. 

Tom Brown at Rugby. Hughes. 

Treasure Island. Robert Louis Stevenson. 

Two Years Before the Mast. Dana. 

Around the World in Eighty Days. Verne. 

The Deerslayer. The Early Settlement of New York. Cooper. 

The Pathfinder. A Story of the French and Indian War. Cooper. 

The Last of the Mohicans. French and Indian War. Cooper. 

The Spy. A Story of the Revolutionary War. Cooper. 

The Pilot. A Sea Tale of the Revolutionary War. Clooper. 

Wing and Wing. A Sea Tale of 1798-1799. Cooper. 

A New England Girlhood. Lucy Larcom. Riverside Library. 



64 

Christmas Stories. Dickens. 

Nicholas Nickleby. Dickens. 

David Copperfield. Dickens. 

Westward, Ho ! Kingsley. 
^Christmas Carol and Cricket on the Hearth. Maynard Classics. 
*The Vicar of Wakefield. Goldsmith. Giun and Maynard. 
*Ivanhoe. (Condensed.) Scott. Maynard. 
*Q,uentin Durward. (Condensed.) Scott. Ginn & Co. 
*Tales of a Grandfather. (Condensed.) Scott. Ginn & Co. 
*Kenil worth. (Condensed.) Scott. Maynard. 

American Authors and their Birthdays. Riverside Series. 

Portraits and Biographical Sketches of Twenty American Authors. 
Riverside Series. 

Young Folks' Book of American Explorers. Higginson. 

Young Folks' History of the United States. Higginson. 

Famous American Indians. Eggleston. 

Young Folks' Heroes of History. Towle. 6 vols. 

Stories of American History. N. S. Dodge. 

The Story of the United States Navy. B. J. Lossing. 

One Hundi'ed Famous Americans. Routledge. 
*Grandfather's Stories. Johonnot Series. 6 vols. _ 

Men and Manners in America One Hundred Years Ago. Scudder. ■ 

The Story of Freedom. Coffin. ^ 

Old Times in the Colonies. Coffin. 

Boys of '76. Coffin. J 

The Building of the Nation. Coffin. ^ 

Stories of the Old Dominion. J. E. Cooke. 
*Historical Classic Readings. Maynard Classics. 

The War of Independence. John Fiske. Riverside Library. 

School History of Pennsylvania. Sypher. 

Stories from Bible History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from Greek History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from Roman History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from English History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from German History. Miss Yonge. 

Stories from French History. Miss Yonge. 
*Tales from English History. Rolfe's Classic Series. 

Stories of Discovery. E. E. Hale. 

Stories of Adventure. E. E. Hale. 

Stories of Invention. E. E. Hale. 

Stories of War. E. E. Hale. 

Stories of the Sea. E. E. Hale. 
^History of England. Lancaster. 
♦History of England. Stone. 

History of France. Barnes. 



65 

*General History. Barnes. 

Life of Columbus. Irving. 

Life of Columbus. Abbott. 

Life of Franklin. Abbott. 

Autobiography of Franklin. Maynard Classics. 

George Washington. Scudder. Riverside Library. 

Life of Washington. Thayer. 

Life of Lincoln. Thayer. 

Life of Daniel Boone. Abbott. 

*Washiugton's Farewell Address, etc. Riverside Series. 

^Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, etc. Riverside and Maynard. 
*Webster's Oration on Adams and Jefferson. Riverside and 

Maynard. 
*Webster's Bunker Hill Orations. Riverside and Maynard. 
•"■American Patriotic Selections. Maynard Classics. 
^Patriotic Reader. Gen. Barrington. 

Boys of Other Countries. Bayard Taylor. 

Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. Towle. 

Zig-Zag Journeys in the Sunny South. Butterworth. 

Zig-Zag Journeys Around the World. Butterworth. 

Zig-Zag Journeys in Europe. Butterworth. 

Zig-Zag Journeys in Northern Lands. Butterworth. 

Zig Zag Journeys in Classic Lands. Butterworth. 

Around the World. Kingston. 

Voyage of the Vivian to the North Pole and Beyond. Knox 

Boy Traveler Series. Knox. 

Little People of Asia. Olive T. Miller. 

Bodley Books of Travel. 4 vols. Scudder. 

Views Afoot. Travels in Europe. Bayard Taylor. 

Famous Cities of the Modern World. Routledge. 

Famous Cities of the Ancient World. Routledge. 
^Geographical Reader. Guyot. 

Brave Little Holland. Riverside Library. 
•^Geographical Reader. Johonnot. 

Our Young Folks Abroad. McCabe. 
*The World and Its People. Books IV and V. 

Parables from Nature. Mrs. Gatty. 

Home Studies in Nature. Treat. 

Boys and Girls in Biology. Stevenson. 

First Book in Zoology. Morse. 
*Animal Life on Sea and Land. Miss Cooper. 

The Story of the Plants. Grant Allen. 

The Fairy Land of Science. Buckley. 

Life and Her Children. Buckley. 

The Winners in Life's Race. Buckley. 



66 

Wake Robin. John Burnjughs. Riverside Series. 

Winter Sunshine. John Burroughs. Riverside Series. 

Sharp Eyes and Other Papers. Burroughs. Riverside Series, 

Friends in Feathers and Fur. Riverside Library. 

Up and Down the Brooks. M. E. Bamford. 

Birds Through an Opera Glass. Florence E. Merriam. 

Friends Worth Knowing. Ingersoll. 

Coal and Coal Mines. Homer Green. 
*Readiug in Nature's Book. Swinton & Cathcart. 
*Flyers, Creepers, and Swimmers. Johonnot. 
*Claws and Hoofs. Johonnot. 
*The Animate World. Johonnot. 
*How Plants Grow. Gray. 

How Plants Behave. Gray. 

Chapters on Plant Life. Herriek. 
*Stories of American History. Wright, 
*Stories of American Progress. Wright. 

Old Dutch Times in New York. 

Indian M^'ths. Miss Emerson. 

The Arthurian Legends, S. H. Gurteen. 

Wonders of Vegetation, De Vere, 

POETRY, 

Selections from Readers in Use. 

American Poems. Scudder. 
*CIass Book of Poetry. Hart. 
*Child Life in Poetry. Whittier, Riverside Series, 

Child's Book of Poetry. Coates. 

Poetrj' and Songs of Childhood. Harper. 

A Book of Famous Verse. Agnes Repplier. Riverside Library, 

The Children's Treasury of English Song. Palgrave. 

Open Sesame. 3 vols of Poetry for School Use. Ginn. 

A Child's Garden of Verse, Stevenson. 
*The Lady of the Lake. Scott. Maynard Classics. 
*Longfellow's Evangeline. Ginn & Co. 
*Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish. Ginn & Co. 
^Longfellow's Hiawatha. Ginn & Co. 
*Whittier's Snow Bound. Ginn & Co. 
*The Deserted Village. Goldsmith. Maynard Classics, 

The Riverside Song Book. 

Selections from the Poems of Bayard Taylor. 
^Selections from Shakespeare. 
*Selections from Longfellow. 
*Selections from Bryant. 



I 



67 

^Selections from Whittier. 
*Selections from Lowell. 
*Selections from Holmes. 
*Selections from Scott. 
Selections from John G. Saxe. 

General List. — In Addition to Books Already Nambd. 

FANCY AND FICTION. 

Arabian Nights* Entertainments. Houghton & MiflQin. 

The Fairy Book. Craik. 

Telemachus. Fenelon. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Stories from Chaucer. Seymour. T. Nelson & Sons. 

Baron Munchausen. Ward & Lock. 

Childhood. Little Classics. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Don Quixote. Cervantes. Ormsby's Translation. Routledge. 

Gulliver's Travels. Swift. Ginn & Co. 

Myths and Mythmakers. John Fiske. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Robin Hood's Merry Adventures. Pyle. Scribners. 

Elizabeth ; or, The Exiles of Siberia. Cottin. 

The Story of Roland. James Baldwin. Scribners, 

The Story of Siegfried. James Baldwin. Scribners. 

Norse Stories Retold from the Eddas. Mabie. Roberts. 

The Pilgrim's Progress. Bunyan. 

Undine and Sintrim. Fouque. Riverside and Maynard. 

The Sketch Book. Irving. 

The Prince and the Pauper. Mark Twain, 

The Early Dawn in England. Mrs. Charles. Dodd, Mead & Co. 

The Schonberg-Cotta Family. Mrs. Charles. Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Three Greek Children, Church. Putnams. 

Stories of Charlemagne. Hanson. T, Nelson & Sons, 

Charlemagne, G. P, R, James, Harper Bros, 

The Boy's Froissart, Lanier. Scribners. 

The Boy's King Arthur. Lanier. Scribners. 

The Boy's Percy. Lanier. Scribners. 

Ben Hur. Lew Wallace. Harper Bros. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin. H. B. Stowe. Scribners. 

Nights with Uncle Remus. Harris. 

Uncle Remus ; His Songs and His Sayings. Harris. 

On the Plantation. Harris. 

With Wolf in Canada. Henty. 

In Freedom's Cause Henty. 

With Pike and Dike. Henty. 

Cudjo's Cave. Trowbridge. 



68 

Household Tales. Maria Edgeworth. 

Scottish Chiefs. Jane Porter. Lovell. 

Tales of the Pathfinders. Gilman. 

Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Verne. 

Stories for Boys. R. H. Davis. Scribners. 

The Hoosier Schoolmaster. Eggleston. Scribners. 

Little Lord Fontleroy. Mrs. Burnett. 

The Home. Fredericka Bremer. MacMillan. 

The Midnight Sun. Fredericka ]Jremer. MacMillan. 

Feats on the Fiord. Martineau. 

Straight On ; a Story of School Boy Life in France. Appleton. 

The Vale of Cedars. Grace Aguilar. 

Little Men. Miss Alcott. 

The Old-Fashioned Girl. Miss Alcott. 

Eight Cousins. Miss Alcott. 

Jo's Boys. Miss Alcott. 

Cuor^ ; an Italian School-Boy's Journal. De Amicis. Crowell. 

The Dove in the Eagle's Nest. Miss Yonge. 

The Heir of RedclilFe. Miss Yonge. 

The Daisy Chain. Miss Yonge. 

My Young Alcides. Miss Yonge. 

A Chaplet of Pearls. Miss Yonge. 

The Caged Lion. Miss Yonge. 

The Story of a Short Life. Mrs. Ewing. 

A Great Emergency. Mrs. Ewing. 

Stories of Old English Poetrj', Abby Sage Richardson. 

Stories from Famous Ballads. Grace Greenwood. 

Six to Sixteen ; a Story for Girls. Mrs. Ewing. 

Mrs. Overtheway's Remembrances. Mrs. Ewing. 

We and the World. Mrs. Ewing. 

Jackanapes. Mrs. Ewing. 

Dandelion Clocks, and Other Tales. Mrs. Ewing. 

Castle Blair. Flora L. Shaw. Roberts Bros. 

The Birds' Christmas Carol. Wiggins. 

Life of a Southern Planter. Col. Dabney. 

Deep Haven. Sara Orne Jewitt. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Country Byways. Sara Orne Jewitt. Houghton & Mifflin. 

A Country Doctor. Sara Orne Jewitt. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Mosses from an Old Manse. Hawthorne. 

The House of the Seven Gables. Hawthorne. 

Dafiydowndilly and Other Stories. Hawthorne. 

The Marble Faun. Hawthorne. 

Leather Stocking Tales. J. Fenimore Cooper. 

The Deerslayer, The Pathfinder, The Last of the Mohicans, 
The Pioneers, The Prairie. 



69 

Sea Tales. J. Fenimore Cooper. 

First Series.— The Pilot, The Water ! Witch, Wing and 
Wing, The Red Rover, The Two Admirals. 

Second Series. — The Sea Lions, Jack Tier, The Crater, Afloat 
and Ashore, Miles Wallingford. 
The Spy : a Tale of the Revolution. J. Fenimore Cooper. 
The Wide, Wide World. Miss Warner. 
Old Town Folks. H. B. Stowe. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
Ramona. Helen Hunt Jackson. 
Paul and Virginia. St. Pierre. 
Marjorie Daw and Other Stories. T. B. Aldrich. 
The Last Days of Pompeii. Bulwer. 
The Pilgrims of the Rhine. Bulwer. 
The Unkind Word. Miss Mulock. 
A Noble Life. Miss Mulock. 
John Halifax, Gentleman. Miss Mulock. 
The Pickwick Papers. Dickens. 
A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens. 
Dombey and Son. Dickens. 
Old Curiosity Shoj). Dickens. 
Our Mutual Friend. Dickens. 
Henry Esmond. Thackeray. 
The Virginians. Thackeray. 
Pendennis. Thackeray. 
The Newcomes. Thackeray. 
Mill on the Floss. Geo. Elliot. 
Tales of a Grandfather. Sir Walter Scott. 
Waverly. Sir Walter Scott. 
Ivanhoe. Sir Walter Scott. 
Rob Roy. Sir Walter Scott. 
Woodstock. Sir Walter Scott. 
Guy Mannering. Sir Walter Scott. 
Anne of Geierstein. Sir Walter Scott. 
The Talisman. Sir Walter Scott. 
Kenil worth. Sir Walter Scott. 
Geoffrey Hamelin. Henry Kingsley. 
The Hillyers and the Burtons. Henry Kingsley. 
Austin Elliot. Henry Kingslej'. 
Merrie England. Grace Greenwood. 
Bonnie Scotland. Grace Greenwood. 
Stories of France and Italy. Grace Greenwood. 
Queen Victoria. Grace Greenwood. 
The Master of Ballantrae. Robert Louis Stevenson. 
Kidnapped. Robert Louis Stevenson. 
An Inland Voyage. Robert Louis Stevenson. 



70 

Across the Plains. Robert Louis Stevenson. 

The Prairie Chief. R. M. Ballantyne. 

Six Months at the Cape. R. M. Ballantyne. 

The Island Queen. R. M. Ballantyne. 

The Partisan. A Tale of the Revolution. W. G. Simms. 

Eutaw. A Tale of the Revolution. W. G- Simms. 

The Yemassee. A Tale of Carolina. W. G. Simms. 

Border Beagles. W. G. Simms. 

Under Fire. Capt. King. 

Captain Dreams and otlaer Stories. Capt. King. 

Starlight Ranch and other Stories. Capt. King. 

GEOGRAPHY.— TRAVELS, DESCRIPTIONS, ETC. 

Young Americans Abroad. Oliver Optic. Lee & Shepard. 
First Series — 

Outward Bound ; or, Young Americans Afloat. 

Shamrock and Thistle; In Ireland and Scotland. 

Red Cross ; or, Young Americans in England and Wales. 

Dikes and Ditches; In Holland and Belgium. 

Palace and Cottage ; In France and Switzerland. 

Down the Rhine; or, Young Americans in Germany. 
Second Series — 

Up the Baltic; In Norway, Sweden and Denmark. 

Northern Lands; In Russia and Prussia. 

Cross and Crescent : In Turkey and Greece. 

Sunny Shores ; or. Young Americans in Italy and Austria. 

Vine and Olive; In Spain and Portugal. 

Isles of the Sea; or, Young Americans Homeward Bound. 
Children of the Cold. Schvvatka. Cassell. 
Adrift in the Ice Fields. Captain Hall. Lee & Shepard. 
Cast Away in the Cold. Dr. Hayes. Lee «fc Shepard. 
Geographical Reader. Rupert 

In Arctic Seas. Voyage of the Kite with Peary. Keely & Davis. 
Drifting Around the World. C. W. Hall. 

Roundabout Rambles in Lands of Fact and Fiction. Stockton. 
Around the World in the Yacht Sunbeam. Mrs. Brassey. 
In the Trades, the Tropics, and the Roaring Forties. Mrs. Brassey. 
Sunshine and Storm in the East. Mrs. Brassey. 
The Last Voyage of the Sunbeam. Mrs. Brassey. 
Our One Hundred Days in Europe. Dr. Holmes. 
Our Old Home. Hawthorne. 
Bits of Travel. Helen Hunt Jackson. 
Seven Spanish Cities. E. E. Hale. 



I 



71 

Footprints of Travel. Ballon. 

Family Flight Series. 6 vols. E, E. Hale and S. J. Hale. 

The Land of the Midnight Sun. Du Chaillu. 

In the Levant. Charles Dudley Warner. 

Saunterings. European Travel Sketches. Chas. Dudley Warner. 

Innocents Abroad. Mark Twain. 

Venetian Life. Wm. D. Howells. 

Life on the Lagoons. Browne. 

All Aboard for Sunrise Lands. Rand. 

Rob Roy on the Jordan. MacGregor. 

When I was a Boy in China. Yan Phou Lee. Lothrop. 

A Japanese Boy. Shigenii. H. Holt & Co. 

Java, the Pearl of the East. Mrs. S. J. Higginson. 

One Thousand Miles up the Nile. Amelia B. Edwards. 

My Winter on the Nile. Charles Dudley Warner. 

Livingstone's Travels in Africa. Livingstone. 

How I Found Livingstone. Stanley. 

True Tales for My Grandson. Baker. 

Two Years in a Jungle. Hornaway. 

Stories of the Gorilla Country. Du Chaillu. 

Station Life in New Zealand. Lady Barker. 

What Mr. Darwin Saw in His Trip around the World. Darwin. 

Young Folks' Encyclopedia of Travel. Champney. 

Compendium of Geography and Travel, North America. Johnston. 

Compendiumof Geography and Travel, South America. Johnston. 

Compendium of Geography and Travel, Europe. Johnston. 

Compendium of Geography and Travel, Africa. Johnston. 

Compendium of Geography and Travel, Asia. Johnston. 

Compendium of Geography and Travel, Australasia. Johnston. 

Nooks and Corners of the New England Coast. Drake. 

Zigzag Journeys in Acadia. Butterworth. 

Zigzag Journeys in the Occident. Butterworth. 

The Golden West. Sydney. 

Wonders of the Yellowstone. Richardson, 

Mexico, the Land of the White Umbrella. F. H. Smith. 

Three Vassar Girls in South America. E. M. Champney. 

One Thousand Miles' Walk Across South America. Bishop. 

The Story of Our Continent. Shaler. 

BIOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 

Watson's Annals of Philadelphia. 
History of Philadelphia. Scharf & Westcott. 
Through Colonial Doorways. A. L. Wharton. 
Colonial Days and Dames. A. L. Wharton. 



72 

William Penn, the Founder of Pennsylvania. Stoughtou. 

Life and Letters of Dolly Madison. Houghton & Mifflin. 

Knickerbocker History of New York. Irving. 

History of the United States. Thomas. Heath & Co. 

The Old North-West. Hinsdale. 

The Taking of Louisburg, S. A. Drake. 

Burgoyne's Invasion. S. A. Drake. 

The Battle of Gettysburg. S. A. Drake. 

Battles of the Civil War. Century Co. 

Stories of the Civil War. Blaisdell. 

Boots and Saddles. Mrs. E. A. Custer. 

American Historical Tales. Charles Morris. 

Hero Tales from American History. Lodge & Roosevelt. 

Indian History for Young Folks. Drake. 

History of the People of the United States. MacMaster. 

Histories of French in North America. Parkman. 

Popular History of the United States. Barnes. 

History of the United States. Bryant & Gay. 

History of the American People. Gilman. 

The American Revolution. John Fiske. 

Field Book of the American Revolution. Lossing. 

Field Book of the War of 1812. Lossing. 

History of the United States. Bancroft. 

Towle's Adventure Series. Lee «fe Shepard. 

The Voyages and Adventures of Vasco de Gama. 

Pizarro ; His Adventures and Conquests. 

Magellan ; or, the First Voyage Around the Woi'ld. 

Marco Polo ; His Travels and Adventures. 

Raleigh ; His Exploits and Voyages. 

Drake; The Sea-King of Devon. 
Life of Stephen Girard. Lippincott & Co. 
The Border Boy ; a Life of Daniel Boone. Lee & Shepard. 
The Swamp Fox ; a Life of Gen. Marion. Lee & Shepard. 
The Friend of Washington. H.C.Watson. Lee & Shepard. 
The Father of His Country. H. C. Watson, Lee& Shepard. 
The GreatPeacemaker( William Penn). Watson. Lee«fcShepard. 
Great Commander Series. Lee & Shepard. 

Admiral Farragut. Capt. Mahan. 

General Taylor. Gen. O. O. Howard. 

General Jackson. Parton. 

General Greene. F. V. Greene. 

General J. E, Johnston. Hughes. 

General Thomas. Henry Coppei. 

General Scott. Gen. Wright. 

General Washington. Gen. Johnson. 



73 

General Lee. Fitzhugh Lee. 

General Hancock. Francis E. Walker. 
Personal Memoirs of Gen. Grant. 
Personal Memoirs of Gen. Sherman. 
Personal Memoirs of Gen. Sheridan. 

GENERAL HI8T0BY. 

English Historical Tales. Charles Morris. 
German Historical Tales. Charles Morris. 
French Historical Tales. Charles Morris. 
Freeman's Historical Course. H. Holt & Co. 

General Sketch of History. E. A. Freeman. 

History of p]ngland. Edith Thompson. 

History of Scotland. M. MacArthur. 

History of Italy. W. Hunt. 

History of Germany. J. Sime. 

History of France. C. M. Yonge. 
A Student's History of England. 3 vols. S. E. Gardiner. 
Greene's History of the English People. 

Great Men and Gallant Deeds. Stories of the Crusades. Edgar. 
The Crusade of the Children. Gray. 
History of Greece. History of Rome. 

Young Folks' Encyclopedia of Persons and Places. Champlain. 
Young Folks' Encyclopedia of Common Things. Champlain. 

POETRY. 

Poetical Works of Bryant. 
Poetical Works of Longfellow. 
Poetical Works of Whittier. 
Poetical Works of Lowell. 
Poetical Works of Holmes. 
Poetical Works of Saxe. 
Poetical Works of Bayard Taylor. 
Poetical Works of Alice and Phebe Carey. 
Poetical Works of Wordsworth. 
Poetical Works of Tennyson, 
Poetical Works of Shakespeare. 
Poetical Works of Whitcomb Riley. 
Poetical Works of Eugene Field. 
Longfellow's Poems of Places. 

Books Suitable for Kindergartens. 

Mother Play and Nursery Songs. Froedrich Froebel. 
Cats and Dogs and Other Friends. James Johonnot. 
Little Folks in Feathers and Fur. James Johonnot. 



74 

Neighbors with Fins and Wings. James Johonnot. 

Fiyers, Creepers and Swimmers. James Johonnot. 

Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs. James Johonnot. 

Friends in Feathers and Fur. James Johonnot. 

Little Folks in Feathers and Fur, etc. Olive Thorne Miller, 

Little Brothers of the Air. Olive Thorne Miller. 

Seaside and Wayside. J. McNair Wright. 

In Nesting Time. Olive Thorne Miller. 

Bird Ways. Olive Thorne Miller. 

The Fairyland of Flowers. Mora L. Pratt. 

Nature Stories for Young Readers. M. Florence Cass. 

Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children. Jane Andrews. 

Madam How and Lady Why. Charles Kingsley. 

Storyland of Stars. Pratt. 

Child Life in Prose. J. G. Whittier. 

Child Life. Edited by J. G. Whittier. 

Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 

Each and All. Jane Andrews. 

Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago. Andrews. 

Where There is Love there is God. Count Leo Tolstoi. 

What People Live By. Tolstoi. 

Patsy. K. D. Wiggin. 

Story Hour. K. D. Wiggin and Mora Smith. 

Wonder Stories. Hans Christian Andersen. 

Wonder Book. N. Hawthorne. 

Greek Heroes. C. Kingsley. 

The Water Babies. C. Kinsgley. 

Grimm's Fairy Tales. Edited by S. E. Wiltse. 

Boston Collection of Kindergarten Stories. 

Fairy Tales. Hans Christian Andersen. 

In Story Land. Elizabeth Harrison. 

Buttercup Gold. Ella Robena Field. 

Golden Boat (Songs.) L. Ormiston Chant. 

Songs for Little Children. Parts I and II. Eleanor Smith. 

Kindergarten Chimes. K. D. Wiggin. 

Songs and Games for the Little Ones. G. Walker and H. S. Jenks, 

Stories in Song. E. W. Emerson and K. L. Brown. 

Finger Plays. Emilie Paulsson. 

Merry Songs and Games. C. B. Hubbard. 

St. Nicholas Song Book. 

Song Stories for the Kindergarten. 

Children's Songs. Carl Reinecke. 

The Child Garden of Song. Edited by Wm. Tomlins. 



75 

Note. — The following suggestions by Dr. Balliet, of Spring- 
field, are worthy of the attention of teachers. 

To lead pupils to enjoy it (good literature), the teacher must 
enjoy it himself, must be deeply interested in it, and must have 
the power of making his own interest infectious in the class. A 
teacher who is utterly lacking in the spiritual element of character 
to which literature appeals cannot teach the subject. Such a 
teacher may have the brains to teach algebra, but not the soul to 
teach literature. 

The teacher must not require of the class the looking up of 
"corner" notes any more than is absolutely necessary to enable 
them to get the real thought of what is read. The teacher reaches 
the depths of total depravity in teaching this subject when he con- 
nects with it the study of grammar. " Parsing," " analysis," and 
" diagramming," cannot reveal the soul of a poem any more than 
a chemical analysis of the Venus de Milo can discover its meaning 
and beauty. 

The same story or poem (or parts, of either) should be read as 
often as the pupils will be deeply interested in reading it. The 
most beautiful passages should be memorized, though such mem- 
orizing must never be made irksome, else it will kill the love of 
literature in the mind of the pupil. 



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